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a branch of science dealing with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of any kind of data. (as a science) any descriptive form of measurements such as mean, quartile, standard deviation, etc., which are computed from a sample. (as a measure)
Descriptive vs Inferential
D A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the past 12 games. I A bowler wants to estimate his chance of winning a game based on his current season average and of his opponents.
A housewife wants to determine the average weekly amount she spent in the past three months.
A housewife would like to predict based on last years grocery bills, the average weekly amount she will spend in groceries for this year.
6 . The storeowner is 95% confident that the adjustment in the vending machine increased the mean fill level of soft drink plastic cups between 1.2 and 1.8 ounces. 7. The president of a particular network would like to determine which TV show has the highest rating on weekends. 8. The director of the hospital wants to test at the 1% level of significance whether the four different kinds of serum for curing heart disease are the same. 9. The management director for a large industrial firm wants to determine if three different training programs have different effects on employees productivity levels. 10. Statistics from the DOTC show that in the last 5 years, the previous year has the greatest variability in sales of Ford cars.
Types of Samples
1. Non-probability Samples (always the choice of the researcher) Convenience Judgment Purposive Quota Accidental 2. Probability/Random Samples (everybody is given a
chance to be chosen)
Simple Random Sample - obtained by assigning numbers to each member of the population and randomly picking up some of these numbers like in lottery (RAN key of the calculator can be used)
Example:
Systematic Random Sample - obtained using an ordered list of the population, then selecting members systematically from the list (formula: k = N/n)
Example:
12
23 34 45
13
24 35 46
14
25 36 47
15
26 37 48
16
27 38 49
17
28 39 50
18
29 40 51
19
30 41 52
20
31 42 53
21
32 43 54
22
33 44 55
Stratified Random Sample - composed of several smaller samples that are taken separately (by simple or systematic random sampling) from every stratum in the population.
Example:
20% of the employees from each department of Company X will be taken to comprise the stratified random sample.
COMPANY X
Strata
Population Sample
Accounting
110 22
Treasury
80 16
Personnel
70 14
Legal
50 10
Marketing
120 24
Clustered Random Sample - taken from separate samples in randomly chosen subset geographically distinct clusters (c = x/n)
Example:
A researcher wants to take samples of students from NCR. If the average number of students in the college/universities of the NCR is 3000, and the desired sample is 500.
x 3000 c = ---- = --------- = 6 n 500 500 ------- = 83 or 84 6
Thus, only 6 schools from NCR will be chosen (using any method) and 83 or 84 students from each chosen school (cluster) will be included in the sample.
Classification of Variables
1. Qualitative - not expressed numerically - differs in kind rather than in degrees
Dichotomous - can be made only in two categories (male or female, employed or unemployed, etc.) Multinomial - can be made in more than two categories (job title, color, language, religion, etc.)
3. Interval Data (quantitative) - have precise differences between measures but the zero value is arbitrary and does not imply an absence of the characteristic being measured ex: IQ level, temperature scale, test scores 4. Ratio Data (quantitative) - based on a standard scale which have a fixed zero point in which the zero value denotes the complete absence of the characteristic being measured ex: volume, height, weight, salaries, age
Kinds of Graphs
1. Line graph - shows the successive points that are connected by lines 2. Bar graph - can be vertical or horizontal , simple or multiple, with equal widths and do not overlap 3. Pie graph - a segmented circle 4. Pictograph - use symbols or pictures
N n = -----------1 + Ne2
where: n = sample size N = population size e = margin of error
a value which quantifies possible sampling errors or uncertainties about the survey results
Examples: 1. Find the sample size if the population is 10,000 and the margin of error is: a. 5% b. 1% 2. A company has 1350 employees. If a representative group of 177 was selected and asked questions. What is the margin of error in determining the sample? 3. With a 5% margin of error, a sample of 350 respondents were interviewed. From what number of population was it taken?
4. A survey to find out if families living in a certain municipality are in favor of the Charter change will be conducted. To ensure that all income groups are represented, the respondents will be divided into classes, as shown below:
Strata High-Income Middle-Income Low-Income Class Class A Class B Class C No. of Families 1,000 2,500 1,500 N = 5,000
a. Using a 5% margin of error, how many families should be included in the samples? b. Using a proportional allocation, how many from each group should be taken as samples?
Strata HighIncome
MiddleIncome LowIncome
Class
No. of Families
1,000
Percent
No. of sample
20%
74
B
C
2,500
1,500 N = 5,000
50%
30%
185
111 n = 370
Summation Notation - denotes the sum of some numerical values - used to determine the sum of the quantities at a given range - used the Greek capital letter sigma, Illustration: n
Xi
i=1
Read as summation of Xi , i taken from 1 to n where: 1 = represents the lower limit (start) n = represents the upper limit (end)
Find:
3 4 4
1. Xi
i=1 4
2. Xi Yi
i=2 3
3. Yi 2
i=1 4 i=3 2 i=1
4. Xi3
i=1
5. (Xi i)
i=2
6. Xi ( Yi 2)
Examples:
X1 = 4 Y1 = -1 Find: 3 1. Xi i=1 4 4. Xi3 i=1 X2 = 2 Y2 = 2 X3 = 0 Y3 = 3 X4 = -2 Y4 = 1
c = nc
i=1
Example:
4
5 = 4 (5) = 20
i=1
cXi = c Xi
i=1 i=1