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Introduction
Man is continuously exposed to ionizing radiation which originates from naturally occurring radiation.
Radioactive materials and man-made radiation sources are always present in his environment.
In some places background radiation contributes significantly to human annual radiation dose exposures.
Sometimes Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (norm) are technologically enhanced following extraction of other valuable minerals yielding TENORM or Technologically Enhanced Radioactive Materials (e.g. oil and gas industry and tin mining).
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Sources of Radiation
NORM are scattered in low concentration or abundance in various samples such as soil, sediment, air, water and living organisms.
Natural radiation originates from 3 types of sources:
Cosmic rays Cosmogenic radionuclides Primordial radionuclides
Sources of Radiation
Cosmic radiation: Originate from the stars of outer space. Consist of proton (~ 85 %), alpha particle (~ 14 %) and heavy nucleus (~ 1 %). Primary cosmic rays interact with the upper atmosphere and produce secondary cosmic rays consisting of muon (~70%) and electron (~30%). Cosmic rays contribute around 300 Sv of total natural radiation exposure.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Sources of Radiation
Cosmogenic radionuclides:
Are radionuclides produced following interactions of cosmic rays with particles in the atmosphere.
Sources of Radiation
Primordial radionuclides:
Radionuclide that coexisted during the creation of earth. Radionuclide have very long half life, i.e. t1/2 >108 years e.g. U-235, U-238, Th-232, K-40 and Rb- 87.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Sources of Radiation
Annual per Capita Dose
Hazards associated with different LET radiation may be divided based on the modes of exposures, i.e. external and internal:
External exposure: o Hazards from gamma emitter radionuclide. o Actual exposure dose depends on the volume of source, the distance between the worker and the source, the working hours and the shielding used. Internal exposure: o Exposure to radon (Rn-222) and thoron (Rn-220). o Rn-220 and Rn-222 are radioactive gases and pose internal hazards if inhale.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Th-230
Ra-226 Pb-210 Po-210 U-235 Pa-231
0.085 (2.3)
0.14 (3.7) 0.25 (6.8) 0.26 (7.0) 0.0037 (0.1) 0.0059 (0.16)
Ac-227
Th-232 Ra-228 Th-228
0.0059 (0.16)
0.077 (2.1) 0.066 (1.8) 0.19 (3.2)
Engineering Control
Administrative Control
Radiation Control
Next best method of controlling radiation risk after elimination, is engineering control.
Safe work procedure is one method administrative control. A practical and appropriate safe working procedure is necessary to avoid or reduce the effects of external and internal radiation exposures from NORM/TENORM.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
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Radiation Control
The basic principle of external radiation protection (i.e. time, distance, and shielding) should be considered in all safe working procedures. All safe working procedures must be clear, concise and easy to follow by the users.
Training on the use of procedures must be given. Safe working procedures must be reviewed periodically to ensure its intended effectiveness and efficiencies.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Radiation Control
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is last choice in radiation protection methods. PPE is used to reduce radiological risk, i.e. the probability of exposure and/or the impact of any accidental radiation exposure.
PPE must be used in conjunction with other hazards and risks controls.
Examples of PPE that should be considered when working with NORM/TENORM include: Respirators: to reduce the inhalation of dust containing radionuclide. Gloves and apron: to reduce contamination of the body. Goggles: to reduce contamination of the eyes.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Radiation Monitoring
Areas and personal dose exposure monitoring shall be conducted as prescribed according to the classification of the working areas.
Records of area and personal dose monitoring should be kept and maintained as required by the relevant authorities.
National Committee for the Certification of Radiation Protection Officer
Short Quiz
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