MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY I SUB CODE: MEC230 Unit 2 Welding (Metal Joining) Processes & Metal Forming Processes

Unit 2 : Welding Quality, Defects and Inspection

Welding Quality and Defects: Weld Quality:

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld joint that is strong and absent from defects
Also concerned with the methods of inspecting and testing the joint to assure its quality

Topics:
Residual stresses and distortion

Welding defects
Inspection and testing methods

Residual Stresses and Distortion:

Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during FW result in thermal expansion and contraction that cause residual stresses These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage Distortion is the alteration of the original shape or other characteristic of an object. Warpage is a distortion where the surfaces do not follow the intended shape of the design. Situation in welding is complicated because: Heating is very localized Melting of base metals in these regions

Residual Stresses and Distortion:

(a) Butt welding two plates (b) Shrinkage (c) Residual stress patterns (d) Likely warping of weldment

Techniques to Minimize Warpage:

Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat

Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage

Preheating base parts

Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly Proper design of weldment

Welding Defects:
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld metal produced due to Incorrect welding parameters Wrong welding procedures

Wrong combination of filler metal and parent metal.

Defects may be on the surface or inside the weld metal Certain defects such as cracks are never tolerated but other defects may be acceptable within permissible limits. Welding defects may result into the failure of components under service condition, leading to serious accidents and causing the loss of property and sometimes also life.

Welding Defects:
Various welding defects can be classified into groups such as, Cracks Cavities Solid inclusions Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour Incomplete fusion

Inadequate penetration
Miscellaneous defects

Welding Cracks:
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary Different categories of cracks are

Longitudinal Cracks
Transverse Cracks Cracks in the Weld Crater

Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate tensile strength of material
These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during solidification of weld metal

Welding Cracks:
Various forms of welding cracks

Welding Cracks:
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher and carbon contents, high arc travel speeds, fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.

Porosities: Welding Cavities: Two defect types, similar to defects found in

castings: Porosity and Shrinkage voids
Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped during solidification

Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during solidification Different Forms of Porosities

Porosity
The gases are generated from flux or coating constituents of electrode or shielding gases during welding or from absorbed moisture in the coating Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces or on electrodes are also source of gases during welding Porosity may be easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and grease Porosity can also be controlled by avoiding high welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths

Flux and coated electrodes are properly baked

Solid Inclusions :
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal During arc welding flux either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the molten weld metal removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal due to its low density If the molten weld metal has high viscosity or too low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be released from the weld pool and may cause inclusion Most common form is slag inclusions generated during AW processes that use flux

Solid Inclusions :
Other forms: metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals such as aluminum, which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3 Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the slag from the previously deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents and long arcs are avoided.

Slag Inclusion in Weldments

Lack of Fusion :
Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld metal or subsequent beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise the temperature of base metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper welding technique and correct size of electrode.

Types of Lack of Fusion

Inadequate or Incomplete Penetration:

Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a groove joint.

Causes :
Low currents or larger arc lengths
Large root face or small root gap Too narrow groove angles are used then it results into poor penetration

Types of Inadequate Penetration

Imperfect Shape :
Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of the weld bead
During welding a notch (undercut) is formed either on one side of the weld bead or both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the early failure of the joint Main reasons for undercutting are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths and fast travel speeds

Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size of electrodes
Overlap may occur due to low currents, longer arc lengths and slower welding speeds

Imperfect Shape :
Various Imperfect Shapes of Welds

Imperfect Shape :
Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, slow travel speeds and large size electrodes are used Excessive root penetration and sag can occur if excessive high currents and slow travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input during welding

Miscellaneous Defects :
Various miscellaneous defects may be Multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc strikes are one behind the other Splash, grinding and chipping marks Oxidized surface in the region of weld

Unremoved slag and misalignment of weld beads

Inspection and Testing Methods:

Visual inspection
Nondestructive evaluation Destructive testing

Visual Inspection:
Most widely used welding inspection method

Human inspector visually examines the weld

Conformance to dimensions, warpage Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other surface defects

Limitations:
Only surface defects are detectable

Welding inspector must also decide if additional tests are warranted

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests:

Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves through specimen to detect cracks and inclusions Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation provide photograph of internal flaws

Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - to detect small cracks and cavities at part surface
Magnetic particle testing - iron filings sprinkled on surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting magnetic field in part

Destructive Evaluation (DE) or Testing:

Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or to prepare test specimen Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional testing methods such as hardness, tensile tests, shear tests, etc

Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to examine metallic structure, defects, extent and condition of heat affected zone, and similar phenomena

Mechanical Tests in Welding:

(a) Tension-shear test,

(b) fillet break test,

(c) tension-shear of spot weld, and (d) peel test for spot weld

Weldability:
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be welded into a suitable structure, and resulting weld joint to possess the required metallurgical properties to perform satisfactorily in intended service

Good weldability characterized by:

Ease with which welding is accomplished Absence of weld defects

Strength, ductility, and toughness in welded joint

Weldability Factors Welding Process:

Some metals or metal combinations can be readily welded by one process but are difficult to weld by others Example: stainless steel readily welded by most AW and RW processes, but difficult to weld by OFW

Weldability Factors Base Metal

Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer heat away from weld, which causes problems; e.g., copper High thermal expansion and contraction in metal causes distortion problems Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when their physical and/or mechanical properties are substantially different

Other Factors Affecting Weldability:

Filler metal must be compatible with base metal(s)

In general, elements mixed in liquid state that form a solid solution upon solidification do not cause a problem
Surface conditions

Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone

Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can prevent adequate contact and fusion

Design Considerations in Welding:

Design for welding - product should be designed from the start as a welded assembly, not as a casting or forging or other formed shape Minimum parts - welded assemblies should consist of fewest number of parts possible Example: for bending usually more cost efficient to perform simple bending operations on a part than to weld an assembly from flat plates and sheets

Arc Welding Design Guidelines:

Good fit-up of parts - to maintain dimensional control and minimize distortion Machining is sometimes required to achieve satisfactory fit-up Assembly must allow access for welding gun to reach welding area Design of assembly should allow flat welding to be performed as much as possible, since this is the fastest and most convenient welding position

Arc Welding Positions:

Welding positions defined here for groove welds: (a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d) overhead