Cellular respiration

Facts about cellular respiration

Metabolic Pathway that breaks down carbohydrates Process is Exergonic as High-energy Glucose is broken into CO2 and H2O Process is also Catabolic because larger Glucose breaks into smaller molecules

What are the stages of cellular respiration?

Glycolysis The Krebs Cycle The Electron Transport Chain

Cellular respiration

glucose
glycolysis Krebs cycle Electron transport

fermentation

Alcohol/ lactic acid

 First

phase is anaerobic and the second phase is Aerobic. During Anaerobic phase a little ATP is produced and the molecules are prepared for the second phase.

This

phase is GLYCOLYSIS.

 Second

set of reaction is Aerobic and it is called KREBS CYCLE and the Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis
Splits a glucose molecule into 2 - 3 Carbon molecules called PYRUVATE.

products: 2 ATP, NADH and

pyruvate

 It

occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is an enzyme controlled reaction. It literally means sugar splitting. Glucose for glycolysis come directly from the blood.

Krebs cycle
It

is a closed pathway of enzyme controlled reaction. It was discovered by Sir Hans Krebs in 1937. It is also called citric acid cycle or TCA Cycle.

The product of glycolysis, Pyruvate fed into the mitochondria. It enters into the Krebs cycle. This leads to the complete oxidation of glucose resulting in CO2, H2O and a large amount of ATP. Each individual step is controlled by enzyme. Reaction takes place in the matrix of mitochondria. ATP production occurs in the presence of O2 in the stalked particles.

The link reaction

Pyruvate (3C) crosses mitochondrial membrane from cytoplasm. is converted into Acetyl CoA (2C) by the release of CO2 and H which reduce NAD.

It

It

occurs in the presence of decarboxylase and dehydrogenase enzymes.

Acetyl CoA (2C) combines with Oxaloacetate (4C) and form Citric Acid (6C). This is the point where it enters into Krebs Cycle. So it is also called Citric Acid Cycle. 6C compound goes through a cyclical series of reactions. Citric Acid release one molecule of CO2 and form - ketoglutarate (5C).

- ketoglutarate release one molecule of CO2 and form Succinate (4C). Here one molecule of ATP and NADH are released. Succinate is converted into malate (4C) by reducing FAD. Malate is converted into Oxaloacetate(4C) by reducing NAD

4C

4C

6C

4C

4C

5C

Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle

The reaction rate for the citric acid cycle

Increases when high levels of ADP or NAD+ activate isocitrate dehydrogenase and -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase Decreases when high levels of ATP or NADH inhibit isocitrate dehydrogenase.

Decreases when high levels of NADH or succinylCoA inhibit -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.

Formation of acetylCoA from pyruvate (catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase) also activated by ADP and inhibited by ATP and NADH.

Figure 9.20

Glucose AMP Glycolysis Fructose 6-phosphate Stimulates Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Inhibits Inhibits

Phosphofructokinase

Pyruvate ATP
Acetyl CoA

Citrate

Citric acid cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation

Products of Krebs cycle

Two

acetyl groups are formed from Glycolysis. So the Krebs cycle will turn twice.

The

products are Two ATP Six reduced NAD. Two reduced FAD

The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the electron carriers which are present in the cristae of mitochondria. The hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD or FAD are transported along a series of carriers. This combine with oxygen and form water. When electron passed between the carriers energy is transferred. This energy is used by the cell and transfer to chemiosmotic channel to convert ADP and Pi to ATP

Process of chemiosmois
(1)NADH

molecules bind to protein I and release their H atoms as protons and electrons. FADH2 binds to complex II to release its H. Then NAD and FAD return to Krebs Cycle. (2) The released electrons are passed along the chain of proteins. Protons are pumped across the mitochondrial membrane by using the energy of the electrons. This create a proton gradient across the membrane.

 (3)

this causes a high concentration of hydrogen ions in the inter membrane space. this causes hydrogen ions to move back into mitochondrial matrix through chemiosmotic channel in cristae. Cristae contains ATPase enzyme. The energy released during this transport is used to produce ATP. (chemiosmosis).
The synthesis of ATP is oxidative phosphorylation as addition of ADP to Pi occurs by the use of oxygen

(4)

 (5)

oxygen absorb electrons from electron transport chain. These electrons combine with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The oxidized hydrogen carriers can be regenerated for aerobic respiration

Electron Transport Chain

Section 9-2

Electron Transport Hydrogen Ion Movement Channel

Mitochondrion

Intermembrane Space ATP synthase

Inner Membrane

Matrix ATP Production

Figure 9.UN08 Figure 9.UN08

H H Protein complex of electron carriers Q I III

INTERMEMBRANE SPACE

Cyt c

IV

II
FADH2 FAD NAD NADH (carrying electrons from food)

2 H + 1/2 O2

H2O

MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX

Figure 9.UN09

ATP synthesis
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE

MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX

ATP synthase

ADP + P i

ATP

TOTAL ENERGY YIELD

Glycolysis 2 ATP Krebs Cycle 2 ATP ETC 32 ATP Total 36 ATP

Anaerobic respiration
In the absence of oxygen No electrons can leave the respiratory chain NADH cannot unload any hydrogen to the respiratory chain. So there is no NAD in the cell. Enzymes of the Krebs cycle cannot work. The whole respiration stops.

 Glycolysis

is the only source of ATP. Oxidized hydrogen carriers can be reused for glycolysis to continue. A single glucose can give 2ATP during anaerobic respiration. Pyruvate converted into lactate with the release of NAD+ . NAD+ is used in glycolysis. It is a reversible reaction

Exercise and musculo-skeletal system

During

muscle contraction muscle cells uses anaerobic respiration. Glycolysis produces lactic acid and it is poisonous. As the pH falls it neutralizes the negatively charged groups in the active site of enzymes. The substrate may no longer bind to the active site. This stops the functioning of enzymes which leads to muscle fatigue and cramp.

Getting rid of lactate after exercise

More amount of oxygen is needed to remove the accumulated lactic acid. This extra volume of oxygen needed is called oxygen debt or excess post exercise oxygen consumption, EPOC. Much of the lactate is converted back to pyruvate and which is oxidized directly to CO2 and H2O. The rest is transported to liver, converted back to glucose and then to glycogen and stored in muscle tissue

Oxygen consumed to bring physiological variables to resting level

Oxidative phosphorylation
ATP-

PC system is used first to produce ATP. This is followed by an increase in the lactic anaerobic system as the demand of oxygen exceeds supply. During short term high intensity exercise, anaerobic ATP production occurs. (400 mts run) During long term activities aerobic metabolism predominates. (Marathon rely)

Resynthesizing ATP
Three

systems that produce energy to resynthesize ATP are:

(1)

ATP-PC (the alactic anaerobic system) (2) glycolysis (3) oxidative phosphorylation

The alactic anaerobic system ATP-PC

The ATP-PC system neither uses oxygen nor produces lactic acid if oxygen is unavailable and is thus said to be alactic anaerobic. In an active muscle, ATP needs to be restored rapidly. Creatine phosphate is largely present in muscle tissues.

 When

ATP is used it release ADP.

This

ADP combine with phosphate from creatine and replace the used ATP.

Creatine

phosphate is restored by the oxidation of fatty acids or glycogen.

yield ATP.

This

Questions
(1)

* (a) Describe how a sprinter is able to release sufficient energy for the 100 m sprint without having enough oxygen available for her muscles. (6)

 (b)

(i) Lactate (lactic acid) can build up in the muscles of a sprinter. Suggest why the build-up of lactate may prevent any further increase in speed. (2)

 (ii)

Explain the fate of lactate following a sprint. (4)

 (2)

(i) Muscles are attached to bones by(1)

A cartilage B ligaments C synapses D tendons

(ii)

In a joint, bones are joined to each other by(1)

A cartilage B ligaments C synapses D tendons

 (iii)

Muscles that work in pairs across a joint are known as(1)

A agonists B antagonists C extensors D flexors

(iv)

In key-hole surgery, cruciate ligaments are repaired using tissue from(1)

A bones B cartilage C ligaments D tendons

 (v)

Fast twitch muscle fibres have (1)

A few capillaries B high myoglobin content C low glycogen content D many mitochondria (vi)

Slow twitch muscle fibres

(1)

A fatigue quickly B have no myoglobin C have low glycogen content D have few mitochondria

Answers

(1) 1. idea that energy obtained from ATP ; 2. idea that ATP already in muscle cells e.g. ATP store ; 3. ATP from {glycolysis/ substrate level phosphorylation/ eq} ; 4. idea that glycolysis produces ATP {rapidly / eq} ; 5. idea that some {aerobic respiration / eq} due to some oxygen present ; 6. glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm / eq ; 7. idea of need to recycle NAD+ ; 8. idea that pyruvate is converted to lactate ; 9. reference to anaerobic respiration ; 10. idea of lactate tolerance ; 11. reference to fast twitch {muscle / fibres} ; 12. reference to {creatine phosphate / eq} ;

 1.

(lactate build up) causes {drop in pH / more acidic / increase H+ /eq} ; 2. idea of this affects enzyme {activity / shape / eq} ; 3. this slows down {glycolysis / ATP production / anaerobic respiration / eq} ; 4. reference to muscle contractions being affected ;

1. reference to lactate in the blood / eq ; 2. {transported to / broken down in / eq} liver ; 3. lactate is {converted to pyruvate / eq} ; 4. this involves {oxidation / production of reduced NAD / eq} ; 5. pyruvate is then {oxidised / eq} ; 6. reference to Krebs cycle ; 7. {this requires extra oxygen / reference oxygen debt} / eq ; 8. idea that carbon dioxide and water are produced ;

(2) D B B D A C