THE LATE REPUBLIC I

From the Gracchi to Spartacus

I. INTRODUCTION
Optimates and Populares

A. Two New Political Factions

Late 2nd c. B.C. Optimates = "best men Populares = men of people

B. Optimates

Conservative: maintain status quo Advantages

United front against change Control of government Enormous wealth and prestige

C. Populares

Means to power: proposing reform programs Advantage: appeal to dissatisfied elements

D. Significance

Constant clashes between Optimates and Populares Destabilization of Roman government Conflict among great men and within Senate, esp. the Gracchi (Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus), Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey), M. Licinius Crassus Collapse of Roman Republic; establishment of Principate (Empire)

II. THE GRACCHI

Mellor 478-90 (Appian, Civil Wars Book I, 1-2 and 6-26)

A. Tiberius Gracchus and Agrarian Reform (133 B.C.)

1. Background

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the Elder Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus

Tiberius: elder brother Gaius: younger brother

*Cornelia Presenting Her Children (Kauffman 1785)

2. Gracchan Land Law of 133 B.C.

133 B.C: Tiberius elected tribune Proposal: Land Reform Bill

Tiberius strategy Senatorial strategy Tiberius reaction

Octavius tries to protest Octavius is dragged out

Passage of Land Reform Bill

Initial Outcome: land commission

3. Senatorial Reaction

Stage 1: Senate: refused funding to commission

Tiberius proposes to use the money from a kingdom Tiberius is afraid of senate; runs for Tribune a second time

Stage 2: Senate: fearful of Tiberius establishing a tyranny

Kill Tiberius on the top of the Capitoline hill

Death of Tiberius Gracchus

Scipio Nasica (Pontifex Maximus): Let those who would save our country follow me! Significance: Appian, Civil Wars, 1.2 (Mellor 479): The sword was never carried into the assembly, and there was no civil butchery until Tiberius Gracchus, while serving as tribune and bringing forward new laws, was the first to fall victim to internal commotion

4. Land Reform and the Italian Allies

Italian allies: unhappy with land reform bill 125 B.C.: Proposal of M. Fulvius Flaccus (consul and commissioner) to give citizenship to all allies

Senate rejects proposition

Reaction: revolt of Fregellae

Senate sends in Roman army to crush it First time Allies appeal Become a tool for senate

B. Gaius Gracchus and Social Revolution (124-122 B.C.)

1. Tribunates of Gaius Gracchus

124 and 123 B.C.: Gaius Gracchus elected tribune

Senate nervous about him running twice

Passed various reform measures

2. Legislative Program

Far-reaching program Special extortion court to try magistrates accused of extortion:

quaestio de rebus repetundis

Grain dole Citizenship to be granted to Latin allies

3. Downfall of Gaius Gracchus

Gaius lost support of Comitia Tributa Factional strife Senate: Senatus Consultum Ultimum

Final decree of the senate Gives all power to consul to suppress Goes after Gracchus

Death of C. Gracchus

*Topino-Lebrun, The Death of Caius Gracchus (1792)"

4. Effects of the Gracchi

weakening of power and prestige of Senate strengthening of political power of equestrians further oppression of provincials and allies growing acceptance of violence as solution to political problems

III. THE RISE AND FALL OF GAIUS MARIUS

A. The Frontier Wars

End of 2nd c. B.C Macedonia and Illyria

Celtic tribes south of Danube Cilician pirates Gallic tribes

Western Mediterranean

Northern Italy

Map: Macedonia, Illyria, Cilicia, N. Italy

B. The Jugurthine War (111105 B.C.)

Mellor 65-73 (Sallust, The War with Jugurtha 21-35)

1. Background

118 B.C.: death of Micipsa, son of Masinissa, and current king of Numidia in N. Africa

Will: kingdom to be divided equally among two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and adopted son (and nephew) Jugurtha Jugurtha had Hiempsal assassinated and expelled Adherbal Adherbal appealed to Rome

116 B.C.: Roman senatorial commission initially decided to divide kingdom between Adherbal and Jugurtha 113 B.C.: Jugurtha attacked Adherbal at Cirta

Map: Numidia, Cirta

2. The Jugurthine War

113 B.C.: Senate declared war on Jugurtha

Bribery by Jugurtha of Roman magistrates and military commanders: Jugurtha: A city for sale and doomed to speedy destruction if it finds a purchaser! (Mellor 73)

107 B. C.: Gaius Marius (equestrian) became consul and obtained Numidia as his command

Lucius Cornelius Sulla (patrician) = quaestor of army

Victory to Romans 105 B.C.: Triumph of Marius

Marius

C. Invasion of Cimbri and Teutones (113-101 B.C.)

1. Migration of Northern Tribes

113 B.C.: Cimbri and Teutones move into Gaul Allied towns in S. Gaul revolted 105 B.C.: Roman army wiped out at Arausio (Orange) Marius re-elected consul to face invaders

Map (B=Arausio)

2. Military Reforms of Marius

Accepted men without property into legions for first time

provided employment for urban mob enabled creation of standing professional army in provinces encouraged soldiers to consider themselves as clients of their patron general

Changed organization of army

Combined maniples into larger units (cohorts) Century = 100 (80) men, led by 1 centurion Cohort = 6 centuries Legion = 10 cohorts

Legionary Organization

Century and Cohort

3. Defeat of Barbarians

103-101 B.C.: Marius re-elected to successive consulships

Marius mules

102 B.C.: defeated Teutones in Battle of Aquae Sextiae 101 B.C., defeated Cimbri at Vercellae

Marius Mule

4. Decline of Marius Prestige

101 B.C.: Marius ran for 6th consulship as ally of Populares

Assisted by L. Apuleius Saturninus and G. Servilius Glaucia

99 B.C.: Glaucia had his chief rival for consulship murdered

Senatus Consultum Ultimum to Marius Death of Saturninus and Glaucia Decline in prestige of Marius

Political Situation: triumph of Optimates; discrediting of Populares

D. THE SOCIAL WAR

90-88 B.C.

1. Antecedents to the War

Latin and Italian allies unhappy about inability to gain Roman citizenship 91 B.C.: M. Livius Drusus (tribune) proposed enfranchising Latin and Italian allies Revolt by allies: Social War, War of Socii, War of the Allies.

2. The Social War (90-88 B.C.)

90 B.C.: Marsi and Samnites took lead in revolt

Confederacy of Italia

Roman Response: offer of Roman citizenship

L. Cornelius Sulla: commander of Roman troops (siege of Pompeii)

88 B.C.: Organized resistance to Romans died out

*Coinage of Socii

3. Incorporation of Italian Allies

New Italian citizens were enrolled in 10 out of 35 tribes Towns of Italy became municipia

IV. LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA

Sulla

A. Mithridates and Sulla's Rise to Power (89-82 B.C.)

1. Mithridates

Mithridates = king of Pontus (Asia Minor) 91 B.C.: occupation and withdrawl from Bithynia 89 B.C.: Mithridates declaration of war vs. Rome

Map: Pontus and Bithynia

Mithridates

2. First Mithridatic War (89-85 B.C.)

Mithridates declared war in 89 B.C.

88 B.C.: massacre of Romans and Italians

Sulla initially allotted Roman command against Mithridates; transferred to Marius Events in Rome

Redistribution of allies into all tribes Sullas march on Rome Marius flight

3. Outcome of War

87 B.C.: Sulla set off for Greece with Roman army 85 B.C: Mithridates sued for peace under these terms:

Give up most conquests in Asia Minor Disband fleet Pay indemnity BUT retained kingdom of Pontus

4. Second Mithridatic War (83-82 B.C.)

Sulla wintered in Asia Lieutenant: start war with Mithridates Sulla appealed to by Mithridates Reinstatement of previous peace terms

B. Sulla's Dictatorship (82-79 B.C.)

1. Reaction of Marius

Marian faction (Populares) had won upper hand in Italy while Sulla was in East (Cinna) Optimates attempt to seize control (Gn. Octavius) Marius retook city and massacred Optimates Laws of Sulla repealed 86 B.C.: Marius entered into 7th consulship, but died soon after

2. Return of Sulla

Populares fearful of imminent return of Sulla 83 B.C.: Sulla landed in Italy

Gnaeus Pompeius: Pompey as assistant 82 B.C.: Battle of Colline Gate in Rome

Sulla defeated Marian forces in series of battles

Published proscription list of opponents Declared dictator by Senate: as long as he wished Redraft constitution

2. Sulla's Legislation

Purpose: recreate stable government under control of Senate Changes in constitution:

severely restricted tribunate increased membership in Senate gave Senators alone eligiblity for serving on any juries circumscribed power of provinicial governors

3. Pompey the Great

Pompey crushed remaining Marians in Sicily and Africa 79 B.C.: Pompey returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph: Pompeius Magnus

Pompey

4. Retirement and Death of Sulla

81-79 B.C.: Sulla gradually abdicated dictatorial powers 78 B.C.: retired to Campania and died

5. Legacy of Sulla

Left Senate in full control of Roman government Provided example of use of Roman army to gain political prominence, even at expense of civil war

V. POMPEY, LUCULLUS, AND CRASSUS

A. Pompey vs. Sertorius (7771 B.C.)

Quintus Sertorius: Popularis and ally of Marius

80-78 B.C.: revolt in Spain

77 B.C.: Pompey received command against Sertorius in Spain from Senate 71 B.C.: victory of Pompey

Map: Sertorius in Spain

Sertorius

B. Outbreak of War in East

82 B.C.: Tigranes, king of Armenia and sonin-law of Mithridates annexed Greater Cappadocia and Syria 75 B.C.: Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia, died and bequeathed his kingdom to Romans Opposed by Mithridates and sons of Nicomedes Alliances with Cilician pirates and Sertorius

Map: Armenia, Cappadocia, Syria

Tigranes

C. Third Mithridatic War (7463 B.C.)

74 B.C.: Mithridates invaded Bithynia: Lucius Lucullus (Optimate) sent by Senate 74-71 B.C.: Lucullus recovered Bithynia and forced Mithridates to flee to Armenia 70-69 B.C.: revolt of troops of Lucullus 68 B.C.: Mithridates reappeared in Pontus 66 B.C.: Lucullus deprived of all authority in Asia by enemies in Rome; command to go to Pompey

D. Crassus vs. Spartacus (7371 B.C.)

73 B.C.: Slave rebellion began with revolt of gladiators in Capua led by Thracian Spartacus Great generals busy Command against slave revolt: Marcus Licinius Crassus

Map: Bruttium

Crassus

Spartacus (Stanley Kubrick

1960)

Factors Leading to Breakdown of Republic

Corruption of Senate and loss of united front with growth of factions Rise of Great Men: more focused on their own desire for power than needs of Rome Acceptance of violence as solution to political problems