Measurement and Instrumentation

Outline
Instrument Characteristic of instrumentation, Simple instrumentation model, Accuracy and Error Instrument model with noise sources Sensor fusion.

Instrument
An instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable of interest into a form that is suitable for recording (the measurement). In order for the measurement to have broad and consistent meaning, it is common to employ a standard system of units by which the measurement from one instrument can be compared with the measurement of another. An example of a basic instrument is a ruler. In this case the measurand is the length of some object and the measurement is the number of units (meters, inches, etc.) that represent the length.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 2

Characteristic of Instrumentation

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

 Sensors convert physical variables to signal variables. Sensors are often transducers in that they are devices that convert input energy of one form into output energy of another form. Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the measurement process but may remove energy in their operation. One example of a passive sensor is a thermocouple, which converts a physical temperature into a voltage signal. In this case, the temperature gradient in the environment generates a thermoelectric voltage that becomes the signal variable.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 6

 Active sensors add energy to the measurement environment as part of the measurement process. An example of an active sensor is a radar or sonar system, where the distance to some object is measured by actively sending out a radio (radar) or acoustic (sonar) wave to reect off of some object and measure its range from the sensor.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

Calibration
The relationship between the physical measurement variable input and the signal variable (output) for a specic sensor is known as the calibration of the sensor. Typically, a sensor is calibrated by providing a known physical input to the system and recording the output. The data are plotted on a calibration curve such as the example shown in Figure 1.3. In this example, the sensor has a linear response for values of the physical input less than X0. The sensitivity of the device is determined by the slope of the calibration curve.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

 In this example, for values of the physical input greater than X0, the calibration curve becomes less sensitive until it reaches a limiting value of the output signal. This behavior is referred to as saturation, and the sensor cannot be used for measurements greater than its saturation value. In some cases, the sensor will not respond to very small values of the physical input variable. The difference between the smallest and largest physical inputs that can reliably be measured by an instrument determines the dynamic range of the device.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

10

Modifying and Interfering Inputs

In some cases, the sensor output will be inuenced by physical variables other than the intended measurand. In Figure 1.4, X is the intended measurand, Y is an interfering input, and Z is a modifying input. The interfering input Y causes the sensor to respond in the same manner as the linear superposition of Y and the intended measurand X. The measured signal output is therefore a combination of X and Y with Y interfering with the intended measurand X. An example of an interfering input would be a structural vibration within a force measurement system.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

11

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

12

 Modifying inputs changes the behavior of the sensor or measurement system, thereby modifying the input/output relationship and calibration of the device. This is shown schematically in Figure 1.5. For various values of Z in Figure 1.5, the slope of the calibration curve changes. Consequently, changing Z will result in a change of the apparent measurement even if the physical input variable X remains constant. A common example of a modifying input is temperature; it is for this reason that many devices are calibrated at specied temperatures
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 13

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

14

Accuracy and Error

The accuracy of an instrument is dened as the difference between the true value (reference to some absolute standard) of the measurand and the measured value indicated by the instrument. For any particular measurement there will be some error due to
systematic (bias) and random (noise) error sources. The combination of systematic and random error can be visualized by considering the analogy of the target.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 15

Systematic Error Sources (Bias)

There are a variety of factors that can result in systematic measurement errors. Miscalibration: One class of cause factors are those that change the inputoutput response of a sensor resulting in miscalibration. The modifying inputs and interfering inputs discussed above can result in sensor miscalibration. For example, if temperature is a modifying input, using the sensor at a temperature other than the calibrated temperature will result in a systematic error. Aging of the components: It will change the sensor response and hence the calibration.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 16

 Invasiveness: Systematic errors can also be introduced if the measurement process itself changes the intended measurand. For example, in electronic systems, the energy drain of a measuring device can be made negligible by making the input impedance very high. An extreme example of invasiveness would be to use a large warm thermometer to measure the temperature of a small volume of cold uid. Heat would be transferred from the thermometer and would warm the uid, resulting in an inaccurate measurement.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 17

 Parallax: Finally, systematic errors or bias can be introduced by human observers when reading the measurement. A common example of observer bias error is parallax error.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

18

Random Error Sources (Noise)

If systematic errors can be removed from a measurement, some error will remain due to the random error sources. Random error is sometimes referred to as noise, which is dened as a signal that carries no useful information. If a measurement with true random error is repeated a large number of times, it will exhibit a Gaussian distribution, as demonstrated in the example in Figure 1.7 by plotting the number of times values within specic ranges are measured. The Gaussian distribution is centered on the true value (presuming no systematic errors), so the mean or average of all the measurements will yield a good estimate of the true value.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

19

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

20

Instrument model with noise sources

Signal to noise ratio (SNR), dened as the ratio of the signal power to the power in the combined noise sources. It is common to report SNR in decibel units.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 21

 Random error generating noise can be introduced at each stage in the measurement process. Random interfering inputs will result in noise from the measurement environment N1 that are introduced before the sensor. An example would be background noise received by a microphone. Sensor noise N2 can also be introduced within the sensor. An example of this would be thermal noise within a sensitive transducer, such as an infrared sensor. Random motion of electrons, due to temperature, appear as voltage signals, which are apparently due to the high sensitivity of the device. Gaussian Noise N3 can also be introduced in the transmission path between the transducer and the amplier. A common example of transmission noise in the U.S. is 60 Hz interference from the electric power grid that is introduced if the transmission path is not well grounded, or if an inadvertent electric grand loop causes the wiring to act as an antenna.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

22

 It is important to note that the noise will be amplied along with the signal as it passes through the amplier. The SNR is ideally much greater than 1 (0 dB). However, it is sometimes possible to interpret a signal that is lower than the noise level if some identifying characteristics of that signal are known and sufcient signal processing power is available. The human ability to hear a voice in a loud noise environment is an example of this signal processing capability.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

23

Sensor Fusion

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

24

 The process of sensor fusion is modeled in Figure 1.9. In this case, two or more sensors are used to observe the environment and their output signals are combined in some manner (typically in a processor) to provide a single enhanced measurement. One simple example is thermal compensation of a transducer where a measurement of temperature is made and used to correct the transducer output for modifying effects of temperature on the transducer calibration.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 25

Estimation
With the use of computational power, it is often possible to improve the accuracy of a poor quality measurement through the use of estimation techniques. These methods range
from simple averaging or low-pass ltering to cancel out random uctuating errors to more sophisticated techniques such as Wiener or Kalman ltering and model-based estimation techniques. The increasing capability and lowering cost of computation makes it increasingly attractive to use lower performance sensors with more sophisticated estimation techniques in many applications.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 26

Methods of Measurements
Direct Methods
The measurand is directly compared against a standard. The results is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. The standard is a physical embodiment of a unit. It is quite common for the measurement of physical quantity like length, mass and time

Indirect Methods
Measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also less sensitive.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

27

Features of Different Types of Instruments

Mechanical Instruments:
These are very reliable for static and stable conditions. They are unable to respond to measurements of dynamic and transient condition. The reason is the moving parts are rigid heavy and bulky and have large mass (inertia problem). It is impossible to measure 50Hz voltage by using a mechanical instrument. Most of them are potential source of noise.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

28

Electrical Instruments
The o/p of the detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical system depends on a mechanical meter (have inertia) movement as indicating device. Due to inertia these instruments have a limiting time and frequency response. Example: some galvanometer can follow 50Hz variation, but even these are too slow for present day requirements of fast instruments.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 29

Electronic Instruments
Very fast responses. These instruments requires use of semiconductor devices. Since in electronic device the only movement involved is that of electrons. The response time is extremely small on account of very small inertia of electrons. Example CRO.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

30

Deflection type and Null type

Deflection type:
The measured quantity produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument. An opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection or the mechanical displacement. This opposing effect is closely related to the deflection. The magnitude of the opposing effect increases with the increase of deflection. The balance is achieved when the opposing effect equals to cause producing the deflection. The value of the measured quantity can then be inferred from the deflection at the point of balance.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 31

 Null type:
Zero indication leads to determination of the magnitude of the measured quantity. For the operation of a null type of instrument, the following are required:
The effect produced by the measured quantity. The opposing effect, whose value is accurately known. This is necessary in order to determine the numerical value of the measured quantity accurately. A detector, which detects the null condition, when measured quantity = opposing quantity

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

32

Feedback and non-feedback system

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

33

Functional elements of an instrumentation system

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

34

Deflection type VS Null type

Properties Accuracy Deflection Null type Lower; accuracy depends on their Higher calibration which depends on the instrument constants which are normally not known to a high degree of accuracy.

Sensitivity

A deflection type of instrument must be larger in size, more rugged and thus less sensitive if it is to measure large magnitude of unknown quantity.

the measured quantity is balanced out. This means the detector has to cover a small range around the balance or null point. Thus it can be made highly sensitive.

Example

Permanent magnet moving coil ammeter. DC potentiometer.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

35

Analog and Digital Modes of Operations

Secondary instruments work in two modes Analog modes:
Signals vary in continuous fashion and take on an infinite numbers of values.

Digital modes
Signals vary in discrete fashion and take on an finite numbers of values.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

36

Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems

This classification is based on the functions they perform:
Indicating Function: Deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. Example: Speedometer Recording Function: makes a written record. Example: potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records Controlling Functions: Functions especially in the field of industrial control process.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 37

S/N
Noise is an unwanted signal superimposed on the signal of interest thereby casusing a deviation of the output from its expected value. S/N is the ratio of signal power to noise power. If the magnitude the noise power is low as compared to the signal of interest, then S/N is large.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 38

Sources of Noise
Generated Noise:
Noise Source: internal component of amplifier like Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor and Transistor. At room temperature, the vibratory motion of atoms is transferred to the conduction electrons, thereby producing a noise component of current. This noise is temperature dependent and internal heating (i2R). : Johonson Noise The vibration produced by thermal effect cover a wide frequency range: White noise. The internally generated noise in semiconductor and vacuum tube device on account of random movement of charges is called shot noise. Not much can be done to reduce the internally generated noise in semiconductor and vacuum tube as this noise is on account to of acceleration of charges, a phenomenon so essential for operation of these devices. Selection filter may be helpful to reduce this noise.
EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1 39

 Conducted Noise:
Noise Source: the power supply to the amplifier could be the noise source since it may have spikes, ripples or random deviations that are conducted to amplifier circuit. One of the most common sources for conducted noise is 50Hz power supply and the harmonics contained in it. It can be reduced by using filter.

Radiated Noise
Due to electric or magnetic fields One of the common sources of radiated noise are the EM impulse radiated from ignition wiring of spark plugs. EECE 312, MSK, shielding. Lecture no. 1 It can be reduced by proper

40

Johnson Noise
The noise power is Pn=kTf

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

41

Power Spectrum Density

Sn=Pn/ f =kT

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

42

Noise Factor and Noise Figure

F=(S/N)in-(S/N)out NF=10logF

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

43

Characteristics

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

44

True Value
True value of quantity to be measured is defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when the average deviation due to various contribution factors tends to zero. Static Error True value of the measurand A Am At 0
r A A 0 / At Am At Am A Am r At At 1 r
Relative Static Error
mskaiser@m.ieice.org 45

Measured quantity

Solved problem
Example 2.1 A meter reads 127.5V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43 V determine static error and the static correction for the instrument
C

A Am At 127.5 127.43 .07V

C A 0.07V

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

46

Solved problem

C 0.08
At Am C 95.45 0.08 95.37

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

47

Drift

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

48

Repeatibility

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

49

Hysteresis and Backlash

Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a block will sometimes reveal different results as the signals vary in direction of the movement. Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in length as the direction of the applied force is reversed. The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a magnetic material. This characteristic is called hysteresis Special materials have been developed that exhibit low hysteresis for their applicationtransformer iron laminations and clock spring wire being examples. Where this is caused by a mechanism that gives a sharp change, such as caused by the looseness of a joint in a mechanical joint, it is easy to detect and is known as backlash.

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

50

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

51

Alter the shape of waveforms

Blocks can incorrectly alter the shape of waveforms if saturation and crossover effects are not controlled: (a) rectification; (b) saturation; and (c) mskaiser@m.ieice.org crossover distortion.

52

BIAS

Bias is where a signal has all of its value raised by an equal amount. Shown here is an ac input waveform biased to be all of positive polarity.
mskaiser@m.ieice.org 53

Dealing with Dynamic States

Error of nonlinearity can be expressed in four different ways: (a) best fit line (based on selected methodused to decide this); (b) best fit line through zero;

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

54

(c) line joining 0% and 100% points; and (d) theoretical line.

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

55

Expression of Johonson Noise

It is the thermally noise in a resistor The noise power is Pn kT f
k 1.38 1023 J / K

The noise generator system can be represented by a voltage source with series resistance Rn If the noise generator is connected to RL , the noise energy can be transferred to the load. Under the condition of max power RL Rn
mskaiser@m.ieice.org 56

 The noise power delivered to load

2 En 2 PnL En 4Rn PnL 4Rn kT f 4Rn

En 2 Rn kT f

Solve Example 2.5, 2.6, 2.7

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

57

Relative Limiting Error

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

58

Systematic error
Instrument Errors
Due to inherent limitation (mechanical structure) of the instrument. This error can be eliminated or reduced by
Calibration with standards. Correction factors may be applied. Instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

Due to misuse of the instrument Due to loading effect

Voltmeter connected to high resistant circuit: misleading result. It will give dependable results with low R circuit.
mskaiser@m.ieice.org 59

Example 3.12

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

60

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

61

Example 3.13
A voltmeter reads 40V on its 150V scale with connected across an unknown resistor in series with a A. When ammeter reading reads 800mA calculate
Apparent resistance of the unknown R Actual resistance of the unknown R Error due to loading effect of voltmeter.

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

62

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

63

 Environmental Error
Due to conditions external to the measuring device May be due to effect of temperature, Pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external B and E

Observational Error
Due to Parallax

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

64

Random (residual) Error

It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation from one reading to another, even after all systematic error have been accounted for. This error is due to a multitude of small factors which fluctuate from one measurement to another

mskaiser@m.ieice.org

65

Loading Effect
Loading effect due to shunt connected instrument
Voltage measuring displaying and recording are connected across the circuit.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

66

Loading Effect
Loading effect due to series connected instrument
Current measuring displaying and recording are connected in series.

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

67

Maximum Power Transfer theory

EECE 312, MSK, Lecture no. 1

68