First edition

Ahmed M. Alaa

2008

FIrst edItIon

Fundamental

Types of Antennas

By Ahmed M.Alaa
2

Contents
Introduction . 8 Chapter 1 : Basic antenna terminology ..9 1.1 Radiation pattern 1.2 Directivity 1.3 Gain 1.4 Efficiency 1.5 Types of antennas Chapter 2 : Dipole antenna ..34 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Balanced and Unbalanced Systems 2.3 Image theory 2.4 Monopoles 2.5 Disadvantages
3

Contents
Chapter 3 : Loop antennas..61 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Design Parameters 3.3 Equivalent Circuits 3.4 Loop antenna Configurations 3.5 Applications in mobile Communication system Chapter 4 : Yagi Uda antennas..77

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Components 4.3 Design procedure 4.4 Advantages 4.5 The folded dipole

Contents
Chapter 5 : Reflector antennas..92
5.1 Why Reflectors ? 5.2 Types of reflectors According to geometry 5.3 Types of Parabolic Surfaces 5.4 Methods of feeding Parabolic reflectors 5.5 Using Image theory To calculate field 5.6 Using GTD to calculate The field

Contents
Chapter 6 : Microstrip antennas..105
6.1 Components 6.2 Types of microstrip Antennas 6.3 Feeding techniques 6.4 Advantages 6.5 Disadvantages 6.6 Techniques to overcome Disadvantages 6.7 Microstrip arrays 6.8 Feeding of arrays 6.9 Microstrip vs. reflectors.

Contents

Chapter 7 : Fractal antennas..130

7.1 Definition 7.2 Characteristics 7.3 Types of fractals 7.4 Advantages

Introduction
This book presents a collection of presentations I gave And tutorials I made previously for basic concepts of Antenna design , it shows you a conceptual overview for Each type of antennas and software programs that you Can use to design them , their advantages , Disadvantages and applications they are used in without Involving any complicated equations. The book can be Considered a quick guide for amateur antenna designers Or readers interested in understanding how antennas Work with no prerequisites

Chapter 1
Basic antenna terminology

Thomas Edison used Antennas in 1885 !

Basic Antenna terminology

Outline
1. Radiation Pattern 2. Directivity 3. Gain 4. Efficiency 5. Types of antennas

10

1.1 Radiation Pattern

The distribution of power or its Derivatives ( power density , power Intensity ) in the space around the Antenna , relative to the maximum Magnitude , i.e. : Radiation pattern Is concerned with the proportion Of magnitudes and not their values.. The pattern varies according to Different w and u .

An example to a radiation pattern in Cartesian coordinates

11

Radiation Pattern

u w

Azimuth plane

Elevation plane

An example to a radiation pattern in Polar coordinates

12

Radiation Pattern

An example to a 3D Representation of a Radiation pattern.

13

Radiation Pattern : Half

power beam width

The beam width is the angle included between two angles in which u ( u , w ) Is equal to half Umax , where U is the power intensity . The half power beam Width = u1 - u2 . Where u1 and u2 are the angles where U is half its Max value , the same for the elevation angle . The Half power beam widths are : a Azimuth plane beam width b Elevation plane beam width

14

Radiation Pattern : Half

power beam width

When the patterns mathematical formula is independent on phi , the pattern Is symmetric about the z axis , then the Azimuth plane beam width is equal To the elevation plane beam width .

Calculating Azimuth plane beam width

Calculating elevation plane beam width

Putting u = p / 2 , we can calculate Phi 1 and Phi 2

Putting w = p / 2 , we can calculate Theta 1 and Theta 2

15

Radiation Pattern : Azimuth plane half power beam width

16

Radiation Pattern : Elevation plane half power beam width

17

Radiation Pattern :

First Null beam width

The beam included by angles where the power is ZERO , usually the first Nulls bound the major lobe of the radiation pattern , the first null beam width Is calculated by estimating the angles where the power intensity is Zero .

18

Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

Some Applications we need the receiving or transmitting process to be Directed in a certain direction , the radiation pattern then have a major lobe With most of the power concentrated in a certain beam .

19

Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

Side lobes : lobes That have lower Power than major Lobes ( also called Minor lobes ) .

Major lobes : the Lobes with highest Power concentration ( usually present in Directive antennas)

Back lobe : The Lobe directed To the earth in 3D representation

The decart plot of a directive antenna

20

Radiation Pattern : Directive Antennas

The 3D plot of a directive antenna

21

Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

Antennas are said to be omindirectional when the power is distributed Equally around the antenna without being concentrated within a certain Beam .

22

Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

The decart plot of an omindirectional antenna The distribution of power Around the antenna Is nearly equal .

23

Radiation Pattern : Omindirectional Antennas

The 3D plot of an omindirectional antenna

24

1.2 . Directivity

Directivity : The measure of how much power , power density or power Intensity is concentrated in a certain beam D = Umax / Uo Where Uo is the average power intensity and Umax is maximum intensity When Umax = Uo , the antenna is omindirectional & D = 1 = 0 dB .

25

Directivity

The directivity is usually inversely proportional with the half power beam width D a ( 1 / HPBW )

Ideal case D = Infinity , and HPBW =0. ( a Pulse where ALL Power is concentrating At one point .)

U(u,w)

Omindirectional

U(u,w)

26

1.3 . Gain

Gain : The directivity after considering the antennas efficiency . G=D* Usually measured in dB .

27

1.4 . Efficiency

The Efficiency of an Antenna is divided into three parts : a Radiation Efficiency b Mismatch c Polarization losses .

28

Efficiency : Radiation Efficiency

Radiation Efficiency : The efficiency of the antenna itself , regardless of The antenna system , and the polarization mismatch , it is related to the Material of the antenna .

Radiation Efficiency = ( Radiated Power ) / ( Radiated Power + Lost Power ) .

Sometimes called = ecd

29

Efficiency : Reflection Mismatch

When an antenna is connected to a generator , the transmission line used causes a reflection in the impedance of the antenna if the characteristic impedance of The transmission line ( Zo ) differs from the input impedance of the antenna ( Z in ) . The input impedance is transformed by Zin = ( Zo * Zo ) / Zold .

G=
| ( Zin Zo ) / ( Zin + Zo ) |

Reflection Coefficient Reflection Efficiency

30

er = 1 - | G |2

Efficiency : Reflection Mismatch

Zo
An equivalent circuit for an Antenna attached to a Generator , the input Impedance of the load ( antenna ) is not equal to Zin but the transmission Line transforms it according To its characteristic Impedance Zo .

Zin

31

Efficiency : Polarization losses

If the Polarization of the incident wave is not matching with the polarization of The antenna , losses results in and measured by polarization loss factor PLF . Antenna Polarization

Received Signal

Co Polar Component

Cross -Polar Component

PLF = Cos

c
32

Lost Component

1.5 . Types of Antennas

1 Wire Antennas

2 Aperture Antennas

3 Microstrip Antennas

4 Array Antennas

5 Reflector Antennas

6 Lens Antennas .

33

Chapter 2
Dipole antenna

C.A.Balanis is one of The most important antenna scientists , and Contributed with a famous book Antenna theory.
34

Dipole Antenna
Outline
1. Introduction 2. Balanced and Unbalanced Systems 3. Image theory 4. Monopoles 5. Disadvantages Practical Example

35

2.1. Introduction

The dipole antenna is the simplest antenna , despite of not being used Practically in applications , it is used to test antenna labs ( so it is considered The reference antenna ) , a dipole antenna consists of 2 wires ( lambda /4 for Its length ) , the two wires are separated by a gap and their terminals are Connected to the transmitter or the receiver

+ -

l/4 l/4

This type of dipoles is called Half wave length dipole as the Total length is lambda / 2 .

36

Introduction : Geometry

37

Introduction : dipole configuration

38

Introduction : Characteristics

The directivity is nearly equal to 1.6 dimensionless and about 2 -> 2.2 dB , The input impedance is usually 73 + 42.5 j ohms and the radiation resistance Is nearly 73 ohm .

39

Introduction : Radiation Pattern I

The dipole is an Electric field Antenna , that means that the magnetic field is Zero at the near field . The radiation pattern is like a donut cake with the maximum Perpendicular to the dipole , and a null along it . The polarization is along the dipole .

The 3D plot of the radiation Pattern of a dipole antenna .

40

Introduction : Radiation Pattern I

The radiation pattern for the Electric field for a folded dipole antenna

41

Introduction : Radiation Pattern II

The radiation pattern of the dipole , all the field is electric as shown .

42

Introduction : Radiation Pattern III

The radiation pattern of the dipole , the magnetic field equals zero .

No radiation Pattern for the Magnetic field H !! This means that A dipole is an Electric field Antenna
43

Introduction : Radiation Pattern IV

When the length of the dipole exceeds lambda the radiation pattern takes A new shape due to the appearance of the grating lobes where the major Lobes divides into multiple lobes .

44

2.2 . Balanced and Unbalanced Systems

Balanced System

A system with two input terminals , a positive and negative terminals , the Dipole antenna is a balanced system because it has two terminals and this Is why it is not widely used in applications .

2 input terminals

+ -

Balanced System

45

Balanced and Unbalanced Systems

Unbalanced System

A system with one input terminal , having a single pole and a ground plane , we desire an unbalanced system because when mounting an antenna in a Device only one input will is used for each component and all components have A common ground .

1 input terminal

Unbalanced System

46

Balanced and Unbalanced Systems : Baluns

47

2.3 . Image theory

When a single pole is near an infinite plane conductor , virtual sources ( images ) Will be introduced to account for their reflections , the plane conductor can be Considered a ground and thus we can construct an antenna that have the same Behavior of a dipole but having a single pole , this type of antennas is called Monopoles , and have the advantage of being an unbalanced system . Fields Electric field Magnetic field

Conductors Electric conductor PEC Magnetic Conductors PMC

48

Image theory
When electric and magnetic fields are near electric and magnetic fields their Images are in the following directions :

s = infinity
PEC PMC

s = infinity

49

2.4 . Monopoles
When combining actual and image sources , an equivalent system of a dipole Is resulted and actually resembles the behavior of a dipole but with using a Single pole and having the advantage of being an unbalanced system , this is Why monopoles are more practically used than dipoles .

A direct ray from the Actual source to the Observation point Represents the first Pole of a dipole .

A reflected ray from the Ground plane to the Same observation Point , has the same Effect of a virtual source Representing the second Pole .
50

Monopoles

51

Monopoles
Monopole

Dipole

Zin = 36.5 + 21.25j

Zin = 73+ 42.5j

52

Monopoles

The radiation pattern of a monopole is half the radiation pattern of a dipole If we imagined that the radiation pattern of a dipole is a donut cake , the Monopoles radiation pattern is a half eaten donut !! . In a dipole theta is Defined from 0 to 180 , in monopoles theta is defined from 0 to 90 .

53

Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

Co axial cables consists of a central and a ground plane , it is used to connect The monopole to the load ( ex: a TV ) . Central cable

Ground plane Dielectric material

54

Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

We benefit from the ground plane of cable by welding it to the ground of monopole And welding it to the ground of monopoles and welding the central cable to the Wire ( the monopole ) .

Central cable

Ground plane
55

Monopoles : Coaxial cables ( Coax )

We can even make a monopole from just a co axial cable ! Central cable And the pole of The monopole Antenna at the Same time..

Equivalent to

Ground plane Of the monopole And the ground Plane of the coax At the same time..

56

Monopoles : Baluns
When we use a dipole instead of a monopole , we should use a balun , which Is a device that converts a balanced system to an unbalanced system , the Word balun is the abbreviation of Balanced to Unbalanced converter .

Balun

Balanced System

57

2.5 . Disadvantages

An Electric field antenna , this means that the magnetic field H is Zero at near field , this makes dipoles incompatible with portable Combination .

Dipoles are balanced systems , this makes it difficult to mount them On any device without the use of baluns .

58

Practical Example

Try connecting a terminal of a cable like the one shown in the figure to a port in your TV , the other terminal acts as a monopole ( but with a bad Performance ) , and you can enjoy watching your TV !!

59

Practical Example
When designing your dipole or monopole , you can reduce the length of your Design by covering it with a dielectric material with permittivity Is reduced then by 1 /

e , the length

Antenna with Reduced length .

Dielectric cover Material

60

Chapter 3
Loop antenna

C.A.Balanis is one of The most important antenna scientists , and Contributed with a famous book Antenna theory.
61

Loop Antennas
Outline
1. Introduction 2. Design Parameters 3. Equivalent Circuits 4. Loop antenna Configurations 5. Applications in mobile Communication system

Practical Example

62

3.1. Introduction

As the dipole is the reference ( conventional ) electric field antenna , loops Are the reference magnetic field antenna . Loop antennas can take different shapes Like square , circle , triangle , ellipse or any other closed shape.

In dipoles current Moves till discontinuity occurs And then radiates ( Electric field ).

i
When current Circulates in the Loop it is obvious That a magnetic Field is produced.

i
63

Introduction : Geometry

64

Introduction : Radiation Pattern

A small loop is equivalent to an infinitesimal magnetic dipole , whose axis Perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

The elevation and azimuth Plane radiation pattern of a Loop antenna .

65

Introduction : Radiation Pattern

The 3D radiation Pattern of loop Antenna , showing The geometry of The loop in blue.

66

Introduction : Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern Of a loop for magnetic Field , the dominant Radiation is magnetic And this is why Loops are magnetic Field antennas .

67

Introduction

Types of loops are :

Electrically Small

Electrically large

C < l / 10 C : circumference

C ~ l
68

3.2. Design Parameters

The radiation resistance of loop antennas is very small and sometimes Less than the loss resistance , this makes them receivers rather than Transmitters where signal to noise ratio is more important than efficiency .

Methods of increasing radiation resistance 1 Increasing its perimeter (electrically) 2 Increasing number of turns 3 Inserting a ferrite core with high Permeability ( ferrite loops ).

69

Design Parameters
Design parameters :

1 Perimeter of the loop ( circumference). 2 Increasing number of turns. 3 Spacing between turns . 4 Thickness . 5 Presence of a ferrite core .

70

Design Parameters
The effect of design parameters on added resistance : Ron N=7 N=6

N=8 Ron : Normalized Added resistance. N : Number of turns

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Spacing

We seek a design with the Minimum spacing and Maximum turns to satisfy Maximum radiation resistance. 71

Design Parameters
Impedance Resistance Resonance occurs When the capacitance And inductance Vanishes and resistance is maximum This is the Area we select the Design within Inductance Reactance Capacitance

Thickness to circumference ratio

72

3.3. Equivalent Circuits

Transmitting mode As we saw the transmitting mode can be modeled by a parallel resonance circuit

Zg

Rl Rr C

+ Vg -

Xa

73

Equivalent Circuits

Receiving mode Zg + Z load Vg -

74

3.4. Loop Antenna Configurations

Top driven triangular Base driven triangular

Rectangular

Circular

~
75

3.5. Loops in mobile communication

1 Loops are alternative to monopoles , the most widely Used element for hand held portable mobile Communication.

2 Loops are used in portable pagers , but very few in Transceivers due to high resistance and inductance.

3 Loops are very immune to noise , having low noise To signal ratio makes them suitable for interfering And fading environment.
76

Chapter 4
Yagi antenna

The Yagi Antenna is a directional antenna invented by Dr. Hidetsugu Yagi of Tohoku Imperial University and his assistant, Dr. Shintaro Uta.
77

Yagi Uda Antennas

Outline
1 Introduction 2 Components 3 Design procedure 4 Advantages 5 The folded dipole

78

4.1 . Introduction

One of the most popular antennas used in home TV is the yagi uda array , it is A very practical radiator in the HF ( 3 30 MHz ) , VHF ( 30 300 MHz) and UHF ( 300 3000 MHz ) ranges .

The Yagi uda antenna is primarily an array of linear dipoles with one element Serving as the feed while the others act as parasitic elements .

79

Introduction

This arrangement extends for arrays of loops , an antenna that is very popular Among ham radio operators is the quad antenna .

Reflectors Driven

~
80

4.2 . Components

The yagi uda antenna consists of a number of linear dipole elements : -One of which is energized directly by a feed transmission line while the others act as parasitic radiators whose currents are induced by mutual coupling . -Parasitic radiators are divided into reflectors and directors. -The feed element is usually a type of dipoles called a folded dipole used For operation in the end fire mode .

Reflector

Directors Driven
81

Components : geometry

82

Components : 3D display

83

4.3 . Design procedure

To achieve the end fire mode the design is characterized by :

Parasitic elements in the direction of the beam are smaller than feed element ( directors ) The driven element is slightly less than l / 2 ( ~ 0.45 l 0.49 l )

The directors should be about ( ~ 0.4 l 0.45 l ) ; less than the feed element

84

Design procedure

The directors are not necessarily of the same length or diameter !

The separation between the directors is between 0.3 to 0.4 lambda .

A yagi uda array of 6 lambda total length was found to have an overall gain Independent on the directors separation

The length of the reflector is somewhat greater than the feed element

85

Design procedure

The separation between the feed element and the reflector is less than that of The feed and the nearest director ( nearly 0.25 lambda )

Most antennas has from 6 to 12 directors .

86

Design procedure

The 3D radiation pattern

87

Design procedure

The 2D radiation pattern

88

Design procedure

The SWR plot of the yagi uda

89

4.4 . Advantages

Light weighted

Simple to build

Low cost .

90

4.5 . The folded dipole

The folded dipole is frequently used as the feeding element As it has good directional characteristics , it is Recommended that the width << lambda .

91

Chapter 5
Reflector antenna

The first cassegrain Reflector was designed By Laurent cassegrain In 1672 .

92

Reflector Antennas

Outline
1- Why Reflectors ?

2 Types of reflectors According to geometry

3 Types of Parabolic Surfaces 4 Methods of feeding Parabolic reflectors 5 Using Image theory To calculate field 6 Using GTD to calculate The field
93

5.1. Why Reflectors ?

While using aperture antennas we always need to increase the aperture Area to increase its directivity ,but as this is not practical , instead of using Large apertures we place a reflecting surface face to face with the aperture ( or any other antenna ) , the reflecting surface collimates radiation to The small aperture and thus we satisfied high directivity with a small Aperture , and overcame space limitations.

A side view of An aperture of A large area

A side view of An aperture of A small area And a reflecting Surface used.

94

5.2. Types according to geometry

Plane reflectors

Corner reflectors

Curved reflectors
95

Types according to geometry : 90 degree corner

To better collimate the energy in the forward direction , the geometrical shape Of the plane reflector must be changed to prohibit radiation in the back and Side directions . The 90 degree corner reflector has a unique property , the ray incident on It reflects exactly in the same direction , so it is not used in military applications To prevent radars from detecting airplanes positions.

96

Types according to geometry

The most important software used for simulating reflector antennas is Grasp.

An example for an openGL plot for all objects of a reflector Antenna using Grasp 9 .

97

5.3. Types of parabolic surfaces

Parabolic Cylinder Focus is a line

Hyperbola

Parabola Focus is a point

98

5.4. Methods of feeding parabolic reflectors

Front fed reflectors

Offset reflectors

Cassegrain fed

Dual offset

99

Methods of feeding parabolic reflectors

Why we use Offset reflectors ( single and dual ) ? To avoid blockage caused by struts , we use half a dish and adjust the Feeding element in a way that makes the antenna equivalent to a single Reflector .

Why we use cassegrain fed reflectors ?

This increases the focal length and thus increases the directivity .

100

5.5.Using Image theory in calculating fields

We use the image theory to find a system of fields but The GTD is more accurate because here we assume Virtual sources .

2n : number of images ,

c = 180 / n . C
= 90

= 180

= 60

101

Using Image theory in calculating fields

E1 E2

E3

E4

En Total field : E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + .. En
102

5.6 . Using GTD in calculating fields

Using GTD instead of the image theory results in more accuracy As we dont assume virtual sources . The GTD (geometrical Theory of diffraction) accounts for reflection and diffraction of Rays after calculating the reflection and diffraction coefficients .

103

A satellite dish is a parabolic reflector antenna

104

Chapter 6
Microstrip antenna

Microstrip antennas Are considered the most practical antennas For mobile communication !
105

Microstrip Antennas

Outline
1- Components 2- Types of microstrip Antennas 3- Feeding techniques 4- Advantages 5- Disadvantages 6- Techniques to overcome Disadvantages 7- Microstrip arrays 8- Feeding of arrays 9- Microstrip vs. reflectors.

106

6.1. Components

A microstrip antenna consists of : Patch ( radiating Element )

Feed

Dielectric

Ground plane copper

The patch ( radiating element ) may be circular , rectangular or any other shape .
107

Components : Design parameters

e) e

Design parameters : ( W , L , f ,

lo = c / f

lg = l /

The microstrip antennas have a main radiating edge , the other edge is weaker .

e
W

108

6.2 . Types of microstrip antennas

Open circuit microstrip Short circuit microstrip

-The patch is totally isolated From the ground plane -Higher efficiency than short Circuit microstrip antennas . -Side length of the patch is lg / 2.

-The patch is connected to The ground -Have only one radiating Edge . - Side length is lg / 4 .
109

Types of microstrip antennas

As it is difficult to manufacture a short circuit microstrip antenna , we use shorting Posts instead .

Shorting posts have : -Inductance in each one -Capacitance between them > As number of posts increase Resonant frequency increase .

Shorting Posts

110

6.3. Feeding techniques

Feeding by coupling Microstrip line Feed Direct feeding by coaxial Feed line ( probe ) Aperture coupled feed Proximity coupled feed

111

Feeding techniques : Direct feed by

coaxial fees line

The inner ( central ) of the coax is attached to the patch while The outer ground is welded to the ground of the microstrip ( like the monopole ) .

Patch

Coaxial Equivalent circuit

112

Feeding techniques : Microstrip feed line

It is a conducting strip of much smaller width compared to the Patch , it is easy to fabricate and simple to match ..

113

Feeding techniques : feeding by coupling

Aperture coupled feed Proximity coupled feed

The most difficult to fabricate And has a narrow band , Depends on two substrates and A ground with a slot .

Has a band width of 13% , however it is difficult to fabricate.

114

6.4 . Advantages
1 High accuracy in manufacturing , the design is executed by Photo etching 2 Easy to integrate with other devices

3 An array of microstrip antennas can be used to form a Pattern that is difficult to synthesize using a single element.

4 We can obtain high directivity using microstrip arrays

115

Advantages

5 Have a main radiating edge , this makes it useful for mobile Phones to avoid radiation inside the device .

6 Small sized applicable for handheld portable communication

7 Smart antennas when combined with phase shifters .

116

6.5 . Disadvantages
1 Narrow band width ( 1% ) , while mobiles need ( 8% )

2 Low efficiency , especially for short circuited microstrip antenna

3 Some feeding techniques like aperture and proximity Coupling are difficult to fabricate

4 An array suffers presence of feed network decreasing Efficiency , also microstrip antennas are relatively expensive .
117

6.6 . Techniques for overcoming disadvantages

Conventional techniques Non conventional techniques

1- Decreasing dielectric Constant 2- Increasing thickness 3- Increasing width .

1- Aligned parasitic elements 2- Using stacked parasitic Elements.

118

Techniques for overcoming disadvantages : Aligned parasitic elements

Feeding one patch by coax Probe and the other two Patches are fed by coupling , This makes the antenna has Three resonating frequencies And the ultimate resonance Is of a wider band width. Patch #1 : Fed by coax Feed line

Patch #2 , 3 : Fed by Coupling.

Single element Parasitic elements

119

Techniques for overcoming disadvantages : Stacked parasitic elements

Rather than aligning them , We can even combine the two Methods and modulate the Patchs shape to yield widest Band width .

120

6.7 . Microstrip Arrays

2^n

Feed Network

2^n
121

Microstrip Arrays
The optimum spacing is 0.8lo , length must be <= lo to avoid Multiple grating lobes and also must be >= lambda / 2 . Advantages of microstrip arrays 1 Used to synthesize a required pattern difficult to achieve with A single element. 2 Used to scan the beam of an antenna system 3 Increases directivity .
122

Microstrip Arrays
Disadvantages of microstrip arrays 1 Narrow bandwidth ( 1 % ) . 2 Low efficiency 3 If the separation is more than lambda , grating lobes appear 4 Feed network decreases efficiency .

123

6.8 . Feeding of arrays

A microstrip antenna uses feed network which may be either :

1 Series feed 2 Corporate feed .

Sometimes feed networks are synthesized with the antenna !

124

Feeding of arrays : Series feed

Series feed

125

Feeding of arrays : Corporate feed

Corporate feed

126

6.9 . Microstrip vs. Reflectors

Microstrip Antennas

Reflector Antennas

Preferred for low directivity applications

Performed for high directivity applications as the effect of blockage Is less Higher efficiency

Lower efficiency

Suffers low efficiency caused by Feed network for arrays

Suffers blockage caused by fixation Struts

127

Microstrip vs. Reflectors

Microstrip Antennas

Reflector Antennas

Smart antennas , uses electronic scanning when combined with phase Shifters More accurate manufacturing by photo etching

Uses mechanical scanning .

Less accuracy , sometimes parabolic Surfaces are rough

Feeding is by coupling or coax feed Lines

Uses other antenna ( dipole , monopole , apertures , ..etc) as A feed

128

Flat plane Microstrip Antenna

129

Chapter 7
Fractal antenna

Fractal antennas are Very compact as they Utilize the same Physical area of classic Antennas but with an Electrically large length !
130

Fractal Antennas
Outline
1 Definition 2 Characteristics 3 Types of fractals 4 Advantages

131

7.1 - Definition

A fractal antenna is an antenna that uses a fractal, self-similar design to maximize the length, or increase the perimeter (on inside sections or the outer structure), of material that can receive or transmit electromagnetic signals within a given total surface area or volume. [ source : wikipedia ]

A fractal is : a recursively generated geometry that has fractional Dimensions.

132

Definition : fractal generation

Some software products can generate fractals And fractal maps , the Opposite figure shows A koch loop after several Iterations .

133

7.2 Characteristics

A fractal antenna's response differs markely from traditional antenna designs, in that it is capable of operating with good-to-excellent performance at many different frequencies simultaneously. Normally standard antennas have to be "cut" for the frequency for which they are to be usedand thus the standard antennas only work well at that frequency. This makes the fractal antenna an excellent design for wideband and multiband applications.

134

Characteristics

Fractal antennas satisfies the requirements of wireless communication Systems :

1 Wideband 2 Multiband 3 Low profile 4 Small antenna

135

Characteristics

The band width of an antenna can be improved as the geometry of the The antenna best utilizes the available planar area of a circle of radius r That encloses the antenna .

Fractal antennas utilizes the available space in a sphere of radius r in an Efficient way

The quality factor Q is inversely proportional with the band width.

136

Characteristics
The concept of fractals is frequently used in electromagnetism , and also used To represent nature .

A Fern fractal Represents a plant

137

7.3 Types of fractals

Fractals may be:

Deterministic

Random

-Von Koch snowflake - Sierpinski gaskets - Minkowski island

138

Types of fractals : Koch loop

Fractals that begin with a basic geometry (initiator) and uses a recursive Algorithm t produce copies of themselves .
Initiator Generator

139

Types of fractals : Koch loop

Iterations

140

Types of fractals : Minkowski island

A Minkowski island

A Minkowski island after more iterations As plotted by the directx display of 4nec2 Software ( by Arie voor )
141

Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

Determined by the nodes of a Pascal triangle which are numbered by the excitation coefficients of the binomial array decided by J.S.stone

( 1 + x ) ^ ( m 1 ) = 1 + ( m -1 ) * x + ( ( m 1 ) ( m 2 ) ( x ^ 2 ) ) / 2!
+ ( ( m 1 ) ( m 2 ) ( m 3 ) ( x ^ 3 ) ) / 3! +.

1 element 2M + 1 = 1 M=0 A1 = 1

2 elements 2M = 2 M=1 A1 = 1 , A2 = 1

3 elements 2M +1 = 3
142

Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

The Pascal triangle

143

Types of fractals : Sierpinski gaskets

If the nodes with numbers divisible by a prime number p ( p = 2 , 3 , 5 , ) is deleted the result is a sierpinski gasket of mod-p

144

Types of fractals : Random fractals

145

7.4 Advantages

Fractal antennas results in more compact antennas , but can resonate And has input resistance that are much greater than classic geometries Of loops and dipoles

The first resonance for a linear dipole occurs at lambda / 2 overall length Which can be physically large for some frequencies

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Advantages

The higher iterative geometries , the lower resonant frequencies because Its overall length becomes electrically large .

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