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Lecture Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the student should be able to: Describe the structural features of eukaryotic cells
Outline
the specialized structural adaptations of epithelial cells mitosis and meiosis, and discuss the roles of each in relation to the cell cycle
Define
The Cell
Basic
unit of structure and function in living organisms Derived from Latin cella little room First used in a biologic sense by Robert Hooke in 1665 German pathologist, Rudolf Virchow (18211905) credited with initiating the study of disease at the cellular level
The Cell
Eukaryotes:
e.g. mammals and other higher organisms - characterized by the presence of membrane-bound nucleus Prokaryotes: e.g. bacteria are nonnucleated Approximately 100 billion cells in humans
Cell Structure
Cell Membrane
Acts as boundary to contain cell contents Lipid bilayer; phopholipids and cholesterol Proteins are embedded throughout the bilayer
Cell Membrane
Selective barrier Transport Communication Recognition
Nucleus
Initiates and regulates most cellular activities Bound by inner and outer nuclear envelopes Contains:
Nucleus
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix of 4 deoxyribonucleotides Complementary base pairing of adenine(A) with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) with guanine (G) Held together by hydrogen bonds Attached to sugar phosphate backbone Chromatin = chromosomal material = DNA, histones, non-histone proteins, RNA
Nucleus
information in DNA is transcribed to mRNA (messenger RNA) and translated in the cytoplasm (protein synthesis), with help of tRNA (transfer RNA)
Nucleolus
DNA is transcribed into rRNA (ribosomal RNA) precursor; further processed into ribosomal subunits which function in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Normal cell
Cancer cells
increased staining of the nucleus usually due to chromatin (e.g. genetic abnormalities DNA) Active protein synthesis = prominent nucleoli Nucleoli assembled from specific chromosomal regions (nucleolar organizer regions) which may be disturbed in cancer cells multiple/odd shaped nucleoli
Cytoplasm
Composed
largely of water Approx. 8% of protein High concentrations of potassium, magnesium, phosphate (osmotic pressure within cells is similar to that of the extracellular fluid) Membrane-bound structues = organelles Filaments and granules
Organelles
Mitochondria Rough
endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Cytoskeletal system
Mitochondria
Organelles
of energy production Products of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism are oxidized to produce energy Final product = ATP/adenosine triphosphate
and transport of proteins and lipids Flattened sheets or elongated tubules Content depending on cellular metabolic activity
of membranes studded with ribosomes that are the site of protein production.
of membranes without attached ribosomes that function in synthesis of lipids and processing of proteins (including steroid, carbohydrate and drug metabolism)
Golgi apparatus
Series
of flattened sacs and vesicles that functions in the modification and packaging of material synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum Examples: addition of sugars, proteolysis of proteins , sorting of macromoleciles
Lysosomes
Organelles
containing a range of lytic enzymes that are involved in the digestion of unwanted extrinsic as well intrinsic material Enzymes include nucleases, proteases, lipases, phosphatases
Cytoskeletal system
Internal
scaffolding: system of filaments and microtubules provides rigidity, as well as allows for movement within the cell (e.g. excretion of material) and locomotion
5 nm actin Intermediate filaments 10 nm - 6 main proteins which vary between cells Microtubules 25 nm tubulin
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Cytokeratin-
epithelial cells Desmin smooth/skeletal muscles Glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytes Neurofilament protein neurone Nuclear lamin - nucleus Vimentin mesenchymal cells
Epithelial cells
Cover
body surfaces (skin) and line body cavities and tracts (e.g. respiratory, gastrointestinal)
Functional
facilitate transport along cell surface Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption
Secretory adaptations
Well
Cell junctions
Cell junctions
Specialized junctional areas between epithelial cells allow for: Adherence to each other Communication channels Three types of junction: Occludens type/tight junction (barrier) Nexus/gap junction (2nm; communication) Adherens type (20nm; adhesion)
MITOSIS
Mechanism
of cell division leading to the production of two daughter cells with exactly the same number of chromosomes and DNA content as parent cell number of chromosomes = 46; 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes; XX in females; XY in males)
Diploid
Meiosis
Specific
type of cell division leading to the production of gametes (ova and spermatazoa) Each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes (23; 22 autosomes and one sex chromosome; X in ova and either X or Y in spermatozoa)
Cell cycle
Begins
at the completion of one cell division (mitosis) and ends at the completion of the next division
Dividing
Interphase
Phases:
G1
(resting; variable length) (G0 for quiescent cells) S (DNA replication tetraploid DNA content) G2 (second gap; approx 4-5 hrs)
Mitosis
Thought
to be initiated by triggering factors in cytoplasm or from other cells including various growth factors 30-60 minutes Division of nucleus* (karyokinesis) and cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
Mitosis
Prophase: condensation and shortening
of apparatus
Anaphase: centromeres split and each
Mitosis
Mitosis
facilitates:
Meiosis
Crossover
events are possible between maternally and paternally derived chromosomal material Chiasmata = points of junction of the exchanged segments Each gamete contains a haploid number of chromosomes (pairing at fertilization will result in restoration of diploid number)