Cell Structure and Function

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Cellular Organization

o 3 main parts of a cell

• Plasma membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
o Organelles are scattered throughout the
cytoplasm and have various functions
o The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape
and allows the cell and its content to
move
Cellular Organization

o Plasma Membrane
• Separates the inside of the cell (cytoplasm)
from the outside
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Attached peripheral and integral proteins

Receptors

Channels

Carriers
• Cholesterol molecules stabilize the
membrane
• Glycoproteins and glycolipids attached to
outer surface of some protein and lipid
molecules mark cells as belonging to a
particular individual
Cellular Organization

o The Nucleus
• Stores genetic information
• Chromatin

Contains DNA, protein, and some RNA

Coils into rodlike structures called
chromosomes before the cell divides
• Nucleoli

Contains rRNA

Site where ribosomes are formed
• Nuclear envelope separates nucleus
from cytoplasm
Cellular Organization

o Ribosomes
• Composed of subunits containing
proteins and rRNA
• Can be found free within the
cytoplasm
• Also found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum
• Produce proteins that carry out
various functions within the cell
Cellular Organization

o Endomembrane System
• Nuclear envelope
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Continuous with the outer membrane of
the nuclear envelope

Rough ER
 Has attached ribosomes
 Processes proteins produced by attached
ribosomes

Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids
Cellular Organization

• Golgi apparatus

Processes, packages, and secretes various
substances

Receives protein and/or lipid-filled
vesicles from ER

Contains enzymes that modify proteins
and lipids

Produces lysosomes
Cellular Organization

• Lysosomes

Contain hydrolytic digestive enzymes

Autodigestion responsible for cell
rejuvenation and development
• Vesicles – tiny membranous sacs
Cellular Organization

o Peroxisomes and Vacuoles

• Peroxisomes

Enzyme-containing vesicles, similar to
lysosomes

Detoxify drugs, alcohol, and other toxins

Large numbers found in liver and kidney

Break down fatty acids from fats
• Vacuoles isolate substances captured
inside the cell
Cellular Organization

o Mitochondria
• Bound by a double membrane
• Site of ATP production
• Undergo cellular respiration (use up
oxygen and release carbon dioxide)
o The Cytoskeleton
• Helps maintain the cell’s shape and
anchors or assists the movement of
organelles
• Includes microtubules, intermediate
filaments, and actin filaments
Cellular Organization

o Centrioles
• Composed of microtubules
• A pair of centrioles are found near the
nucleus of every cell

Involved in cell division
• Form basal body (anchor point) for
each cilium or flagellum

Cilia and flagella are projections of cells

Allow for movement of cell or movement
of material along the cell surface
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

Physical (Passive) Transport Process

o Simple Diffusion
• Movement of atoms or molecules from an
area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration
• Movement of atoms or molecules occur
until they are equally distributed
• Only certain types of molecules can enter
and exit a cell by simple diffusion
• No cellular energy is required
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

o Osmosis
• Diffusion of water across a plasma
membrane
• Occurs when there is an unequal
distribution of water on either side of
a selectively permeable membrane
• Osmotic pressure – force exerted on a
selectively permeable membrane
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

• Tonicity – concentration of solute versus

the concentration of water

Isotonic – equal concentration of solutes
(dissolved substances) and solvent (water)
inside and outside cell; cell shape is
maintained

Hypotonic – higher concentration of water
(lower concentration of solutes) outside cell;
water moves into cell causing it to swell and
eventually lyse

Hypertonic – lower concentration of water
(higher concentration of solutes) outside cell;
water moves out of cell causing it to shrink
or crenate
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

o Filtration is the movement of liquid

from high pressure to low pressure
through a body membrane by
hydrostatic pressure of blood
o Transport by Carriers
• Facilitated diffusion

Movement from area of higher concentration to
area of lower concentration (no energy
required)

Solutes are transported by means of a protein
carrier

• Active transport
o Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

o Transport by Carriers
• Active transport

Solutes move up their concentration
gradient

Requires a protein carrier (often called
pumps)

Requires the use of cellular energy
Crossing the Plasma Membrane

o Endocytosis and Exocytosis

• In endocytosis the plasma membrane
envelopes a substance and forms an
intracellular vesicle

Phagocytosis (“cell eating”) – cell ingests
solid particles

Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) – cell
consumes solutions
• In exocytosis a vesicle fuses with the
plasma membrane as secretion occurs
The Cell Cycle

o Set of stages that take place between

the time a cell divides and the time the
daughter cell divides
o Apoptosis (cell death) occurs at the
restriction checkpoint if the cell did not
complete mitosis and is abnormal
o Some specialized cells no longer go
through the cell cycle
• Muscle cells
• Nerve cells
The Cell Cycle

o Cell Cycle Stages

• Interphase

Cell is not dividing, but is preparing to
divide

The cell carries on regular activities

Three phases
 G1 phase – cell doubles number of organelles
and accumulates materials used for DNA
synthesis
 S phase – “synthesis” phase; DNA replication
occurs
 G2 phase – cell synthesizes proteins that will
assist cell division
The Cell Cycle

• Major events during interphase


Replication of DNA
 Before replication, the two strands of DNA are
hydrogen bonded together
 Parental DNA strands unwind (hydrogen bonds
are broken)
 New complimentary nucleotides pair with
nucleotides in the parental DNA strands and
DNA polymerase joins the new nucleotides
 When replication is complete, two identical
double helix molecules have been formed
 Each strand of this double helix is equivalent to
a chromatid
Parental DNA molecule
Contains so-called old
strands hydrogen
-bonded by
complementary base
pairing

Region of replication.
Parental DNA is unwound
and unzipped. New
nucleotides are pairing
with those in old strands.
The Cell Cycle

Protein synthesis
 DNA also serves as a template for RNA
formation and protein construction
 Two steps involved in protein synthesis are:
- Transcription – formation of mRNA
- Translation – involves mRNA, tRNA, and
rRNA; specifies the order of amino acids in
a polypeptide
The Cell Cycle

• Mitotic stage

Mitosis – cell division stage divided into 4
phases
 Prophase
- The centrioles near nucleus begin moving
towards opposite ends of nucleus
- Spindle fibers appear
- Nuclear envelope begins to fragment
- Nucleolus begins to disappear
 Metaphase
- Spindle is fully formed
- Chromosomes are aligned at the equator
The Cell Cycle
 Anaphase
- Sister chromatids separate (now called
chromosomes)
- Chromosomes move toward opposite poles of
the spindle
 Telophase
- Chromosomes become chromatin
- Spindle disappears and nucleoli appear
- Nuclear envelope reassembles and two
daughter cell nuclei can be observed

Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm and
organelles
The Cell Cycle

Importance of Mitosis
 Each cell in our body is genetically identical
 Important to the growth and repair of
multicellular organisms

Meiosis: Reduction-Division
 Produces gametes (sex cells)
 Stages of mitoses are repeated twice
 Gametes (sperm or ova) that results have half
the normal number of chromosomes