04 WIS5 MechanicalTesting 2006

CSWIP 3.
1 Welding Inspection
Destructive Testing
TWI Training & Examination Services

Course Reference WIS 5 Course notes section reference 4
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd
Destructive Testing Definitions

What is Destructive Testing ?
The destruction of a welded unit or by cutting out selected specimens from the weld is carried out to check the mechanical properties of the joint materials. They can be produced to:
Approve welding procedures (BS EN 288) Approve welders (BS EN 287) Production quality control
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

The following mechanical tests have units and are termed quantitative tests to measure Mechanical Properties Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal) Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD) Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers) The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed qualitative tests for assessing joint quality Macro testing Bend testing Fillet weld fracture testing Butt weld nick-break testing
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of deformation which metals can withstand under different circumstances of force application.
Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength
Ability of a material to withstand deformation under static compressive loading without rupture
Definitions
Ability of a material undergo plastic deformation under static tensile loading without rupture. Measurable elongation and reduction in cross section area
Definitions
Ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of shear stresses by impact loading without fracture.
Definitions
Measurement of a materials surface resistance to indentation from another material by static load
Definitions
Measurement of the maximum force required to fracture a materials bar of unit cross-sectional area in tension
Mechanical Test Samples

Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen
Bend Test Specimen Charpy Specimen
Fracture Fillet Specimen
Destructive Testing
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING top of fixed pipe 2 Typical Positions for Test Pieces Specimen Type Macro + Hardness 3 Transverse Tensile Bend Tests Charpy Impact Tests 4 5
Position 5 2, 4 2, 4 3 3
Additional Tests
Mechanical Testing
Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
Hardness Testing
Objectives:
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity in H2S
Information to be supplied on the test report:

material type location of indentation type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter hardness value
Hardness Testing
usually the hardest region
1.5 to 3mm
fusion line or fusion boundary
HAZ
Hardness Test Methods Vickers Rockwell Brinell
Typical Designations 240 HV10 Rc 22 200 BHN-W
Vickers Hardness Test

Typical location of the indentations
Butt weld from one side only
Butt weld from both side
Vickers Hardness Test

Vickers hardness tests:
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid (136 included angle) the average diagonal (d) of the impression is converted to a hardness number from a table it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025 Diamond indentor Indentation Adjustable shutters
Vickers Hardness Test Machine
Brinell Hardness Test

Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for a given time to a given load Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell hardness in kg/mm2 More suitable for on site hardness testing
30KN
=10mm steel ball
Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell B
1KN
Rockwell C
1.5KN
=1.6mm steel ball
120Diamond Cone
Schlerescope Hardness Test
dynamic and very portable hardness test accuracy depends on the the condition of the test/support surfaces and the support of the test piece during the test for more details, see ASTM E448
Mechanical Testing
Impact Testing
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Objectives: measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report: Material type Notch type Specimen size Test temperature Notch location Impact Strength Value
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

Specimen Pendulum (striker)
Anvil (support)
Charpy V-notch impact test specimen

Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials

Charpy Impact Test

22.5o 2 mm
10 mm
100% Brittle
Machined notch Fracture surface 100% bright crystalline brittle fracture
8 mm
100% Ductile
Machined notch Large reduction in area, shear lips Randomly torn, dull gray fracture surface World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve

Temperature range Ductile fracture 47 Joules Transition range
Ductile/Brittle transition point 28 Joules Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture - 50 - 40 - 30
- 20
- 10
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve

Temperature range Mn < 1.6 % increases toughness in steels* Transition range Ductile fracture 47 Joules
Ductile/Brittle transition point 28 Joules Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture - 50 - 40 - 30
- 20
- 10
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results

Impact Energy Joules Room Temperature 1. 2. 3. 197 Joules 191 Joules 186 Joules -20oC Temperature 1. 2. 3. 49 Joules 53 Joules 51 Joules
Average = 191 Joules
Average = 51 Joules
The test results show the specimens carried out at room temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried out at -20oC
Charpy Impact Test

Reporting results
Location and orientation of notch Testing temperature Energy absorbed in joules Description of fracture (brittle or ductile) Location of any defects present Dimensions of specimen
Mechanical Testing
Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
UTS Tensile test
Tensile Tests
Different tensile tests:
Transverse tensile. All-weld metal tensile test Cruciform tensile test Short tensile test (through thickness test)
Tensile Test
All-Weld Metal Tensile Specimen
Transverse Tensile Specimen
Transverse Joint Tensile Test
Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint

Information to be supplied on the test report: material type specimen type specimen size (see QW-462.1) UTS location of final rupture
Transverse Joint Tensile Test
Weld on plate
Weld on pipe
Multiple cross joint specimens
Transverse Tensile Test

Maximum load applied = 220 kN. Least cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm
UTS = Maximum load applied Least c.s.a. UTS = 220 000 25mm X 12mm
UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Transverse Tensile Test

Reporting results: Type of specimen e.g. reduced section Whether weld reinforcement is removed Dimensions of test specimen The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, p.s.i or Mpa Location of fracture. Location and type of any flaws present if any
All Weld Metal Tensile Test

BS 709 / BS EN 10002 All Weld Metal Tensile Testing Direction of the test *
Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.

All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Gauge length
Object of test: Ultimate tensile strength. Yield strength. Elongation %(ductility).
Increased gauge length

2 marks are made
Gauge length 50mm
During the test, Yield & Tensile strength are recorded The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
Increased gauge length 75mm A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50 %

Original gauge length = 50mm Increased gauge length = 64
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100 Original gauge length
Elongation % = 64 X 100 50
Elongation = 28%

Reporting results: Type of specimen e.g. reduced section Dimensions of test specimen
The u.t.s, yield strength in N/mm2, p.s.i or Mpa

Elongation % Location and type of any flaws present if any
STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
STRA test
Original CSA
Reduced CSA
STRA test
20 STRA % Reductio n of CSA
15
10
Mechanical Testing
Macro / Micro Examination

Object: Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint Carried out on full thickness specimens The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld and parent plate They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders approval test

Will Reveal: Weld soundness Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes

Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
Macro
Visual examination for defects Cut transverse from the weld
Micro
Visual examination for defects & grain structure Cut transverse from a weld Ground & polished P1200 grit paper, 1m paste Acid etch using 1-5% nitric acid solution Wash and dry
Ground & polished P400 grit paper

Acid etch using 5-10% nitric acid solution
Wash and dry

Visual evaluation under 5x magnification Report on results
Visual evaluation under 100-1000x magnification

Report on results
Metallographic Examination
Macro examination
Micro examination
Metallographic examination
Objectives: detecting weld defects (macro) measuring grain size (micro) detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity material type etching solution magnification grain size
Information to be supplied on the test report:
location of examined area

weld imperfections (macro) phase, constituents, precipitates (micro)
Mechanical Testing
Bend Testing
Bend Tests
Object of test: To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone ductility. There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Face bend Side bend Root bend Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
Bending test
Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):
t up to 12 mm
Root / face bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm
Side bend
Bending test methods
Guided bend test
Wraparound bend test

Bend Testing
Face bend Side bend
Root bend
Defect indication Generally this specimen would be unacceptable Acceptance for minor ruptures on tension surface depends upon code requirements
Bend Tests
Reporting results:
Thickness and dimensions of specimen Direction of bend (root, face or side) Angle of bend (90o, 120o, 180o)
Diameter of former. (typical 4T)

Appearance of joint after bending e.g. type and location of any flaws.
Mechanical Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination of the fracture surfaces Specimens are cut to the required length A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet welds length Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow Visual inspection for defects

Hammer
2mm Notch
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

This fracture indicates lack of fusion
This fracture has occurred saw cut to root
Lack of Penetration

Reporting results:
Thickness of parent material Throat thickness and leg lengths
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Mechanical Testing
Nick-Break Testing
Nick-Break Test
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld

A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the welds root and cap Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow Visual inspection for defects
Nick-Break Test
Notch cut by hacksaw 3 mm 19 mm 3 mm Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement may or may not be removed
Nick Break Test
Alternative nick-break test specimen, notch applied all way around the specimen
Lack of root penetration or fusion
Inclusions on fracture line
Nick-Break Test
Reporting results:
Thickness of parent material Width of specimen
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Summary of Mechanical Testing

We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical properties, and soundness of the welded joint We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:
Quantitative: (Have units) Hardness (VPN & BHN) Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs) Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa) Ductility / Elongation (E%)
Qualitative: (Have no units) Macro tests Bend tests Fillet weld fracture tests Butt Nick break tests
Hydrostatic test
Is an under pressure leakage proof test
Vessel configuration: the test should be done after any stress relief components that will not stand the pressure test (e.g. flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be removed the ambient temperature MUST be above 0C (preferably 1520C)
Hydrostatic Test
Test procedure:
blank off all openings with solid flanges use correct nuts and bolts, NOT G clamps two pressure gauges on independent tapping points should be used for safety purposes bleed all the air out pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic pressure stresses) test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500, ASME VIII). Usually 150% design pressure hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes
Hydrostatic test
What to look for: leaks (check particularly around seams and nozzle welds!) dry off any condensation with a compressed air-line
watch the gauges for pressure drop

check for distortion of flange faces, etc
Mechanical Testing
Any Questions
WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Question How are the mechanical properties of Carbon & Carbon-Manganese steel weld joints influenced by the welding parameters used current, voltage & travel speed ? (assuming that sound welds are produced) Answer Strength - does not change very much over a wide range of welding conditions
Toughness - high heat input tends to reduce toughness in weld & HAZ
Hardness - low heat input tends to increase HAZ hardness
Welding Technology
ARC WELDING - HEAT INPUT CONTROL
Heat Input
Volts
Amps
J/mm
Travel Speed (mm/sec)
(Usual practice is to divide by 1000 to give units as kJ/mm)
Heat Input
Volts
Amps
kJ/mm
Travel Speed (mm/sec) x 1000
Welding Positions (to EN Standards)

PA (flat)
PG (vert.- down)
PB (horiz.- vert.)
PC
PF (vert.-up) PD PE (overhead)
Welding Positions (to EN Standards)
H-L045 vertical-up progression J-L045 vertical-down progression

45
Welding Positions
Question: How does welding position influence heat input ? Answer:
Highest heat input usually associated with vertical-up welding (PF or 3G with uphill progression) because of relatively low travel speed
Lowest heat input usually associated with vertical-down welding (PG or 3G or 5G with downhill progression) because of relatively high-speed travel
Welding Technology
THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)
Maximum Temperature
solid weld metal solid-liquid transition zone
grain growth zone

recrystallised zone partially transformed zone tempered zone unaffected base material
Welding Technology
High & Low Heat Input Welding
High heat input - small number of large weld beads
wide HAZ
large % of as-cast microstructure in weld metal
Low heat input - large number of small weld beads
narrow HAZ
large % of refined microstructure in weld metal

Welding Technology
Charpy Vnotch Toughness (Joules) unwelded fine grained steel
good toughness in steel at design temp.
design temperature
Impact Test Temperature
Welding Technology
Charpy Vnotch Toughness (Joules)
steel
HAZ
good toughness in steel at design temp.
degraded HAZ associated with high heat input welding
low toughness in HAZ at design temp. design temperature
Impact Test Temperature
Welding Technology
HAZ HARDNESS Carbon-Manganese Steels
HAZ Hardness
moderate heat input moderate hardness
low heat-input higher hardness
high heat-input lower hardness
Cooling Rate of HAZ (C / h)

Welding Technology
HAZ HARDNESS Low Alloy Steels
HAZ Hardness (higher Cr-Mo types)
HAZ will harden even when heat input is relatively high
Cooling Rate of HAZ (C / h)

Fracture Mechanisms
In-Service Fracture
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture Fatigue Fracture
Fracture Mechanisms
Ductile Fracture
Ductile Fracture
Ductile (overload) fracture appears when yielding and deformation precedes failure
Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture distinguish features:
it is the result of overloading evidence of gross yielding or plastic deformation the fracture surface is rough and torn the surface shows 45 shear lips or have surfaces inclined at 45 to the load direction (because maximum shear plane is at 45 to the load!)
Fracture Mechanisms
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture
It is a fast, unstable type of fracture.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture
It is a fast, unstable type of fracture.
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Brittle Fracture
Effect of a notch on tensile ductility
Courtesy of Douglas E. Williams, P.E., Welding Handbook, Vol.1, Ninth Edition,reprinted by permission of the American Welding Society
A notch also adversely affect fatigue strength!

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture distinguish features:
There is little or no plastic deformation before failure The crack surface may show chevron marks pointing back to the initiation point In case of impact fracture, the surface is rough but not torn and will usually have a crystalline appearance The surface is normally perpendicular to the load
Brittle Fracture
Factors affecting brittle fracture:
Temperature (transition curve, convergence of YS and UTS as the temperature is reduced)
Crystalline structure (b.c.c. vs. f.c.c.)

Material toughness Residual stress
Strain rate (YS increase but UTS remain constant)

Material thickness (restrain due to surrounding material) Stress concentrations/weld defects
Brittle Fracture
Causes for brittle fracture:
Presence of weld defects (poor quality) Poor toughness in parent material (wrong choice)
Poor toughness in HAZ (to high heat input)

High level of residual stress (no PWHT, wrong design)
Fracture Mechanisms
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
If a material is subjected to a static load, final rupture is preceded by very large strains. If the same material is subjected to cyclic loads, failure may occur: At stress well below elastic limit With little or no plastic deformation
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue cracking at the weld toe

Products liable to Fatigue Failure

Pressure Vessels Aerospace
Piping systems
Oil/Gas platforms
Products liable to Fatigue Failure

Overhead Cranes
Lifting equipment
Engineering plant
Rotating equipment
Fatigue Fracture
Location: Any stress concentration area Steel Type: All steel types Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch and weld defects i.e stress concentration area All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as a initiation point The fracture surface is smooth in appearance sometimes displaying beach markings The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a combination of both
Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Toe grinding, profile grinding.
The elimination of poor profiles The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld defects Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage cap/root undercut The selection of the correct material for the service conditions of the component
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure ductile fracture rough fibrous appearance Fatigue fracture surface smooth in appearance
Initiation points / weld defects

Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
crack growth is slow it initiate from stress concentration points load is considerably below the design or yield stress level the surface is smooth
the surface is bounded by a curve

bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface beachmarks. They show the progress of the crack front from the point of origin the surface is 90 to the load final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!) fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Fracture Mechanisms
Creep Phenomenon
Creep Failure
Creep fracture
Creep is defined as a slow deformation under constant load at elevated temperatures. Can occur in materials which are operated for extensive periods at high temperatures. The reason for creep fracture is the flow (or plastic deformation) of metals when held for long periods of time at stresses well bellow their normal yield strength.
Creep Failure
Creep failure distinguish features:
Creep is a time-temperature dependant phenomenon Section under stress continue to deform even if the load is maintained constant Creep is most likely when operating near the recrystallization temperature of that material Usually appear in case of process plant equipment, due to heating and cooling cycles
Any Questions

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CSWIP 3.

TWI Training & Examination Services

Destructive Testing Definitions

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Qualitative and Quantitative Tests

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Malleability Ductility Toughness Hardness Tensile Strength

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Mechanical Test Samples

Bend Test Specimen Charpy Specimen

Fracture Fillet Specimen

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

There is a direct correlation between UTS and hardness

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Information to be supplied on the test report:

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Hardness Test Methods Vickers Rockwell Brinell

Typical Designations 240 HV10 Rc 22 200 BHN-W

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Vickers Hardness Test

Butt weld from one side only

Butt weld from both side

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Vickers Hardness Test

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Copyright 2006, TWI Ltd

Vickers Hardness Test Machine

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Brinell Hardness Test

=10mm steel ball

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Rockwell Hardness Test

=1.6mm steel ball

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Schlerescope Hardness Test

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