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A system of reading and writing numbers is a numeration system. This consists of symbols and rules or principles on how to use these symbols. Our system of reading and writing numbers is the decimal system or the Hindu-Arabic system. Ten digits are used- 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. This system
MIXED DECIMALS
In reading mixed decimals the whole number is read first, followed by the word and to locate the decimal point, then the decimal. In reading decimal, read the numbers to the right of the decimal point as if it were whole number. Then say the name of the position of the last digit on the right as the same of the decimal. We read the number in the second place value chart as sixty-eight thousand, three hundred fourteen and three hundred sixty-eight million nine hundred forty-two thousand fifteen billionths. The ths in the name of a digit to the right of the decimal point distinguishes it from the name of the corresponding digit to the left of the decimal point. There are no commas in the decimal.
The digits dropped in the whole number are replaced by zero or zeros. Using the examples above. Examples: 34, 214.018 34, 210 rounded off to the nearest ones 34, 200 rounded off to the nearest hundreds 34, 000 rounded off to the nearest thousands
SIMPLE AVERAGES
To get the simple average, we get the sum of all given values and divide the sum by the number of values. Example: Find the average of the following grades: 85%, 78%, 87%, 80%, 83%, 90%. Solution: 85% 78% 503 / 6 = 83.5% 87% 80% 83% 90%_ 503%
WEIGHTED AVERAGE
To get the weighted average, we multiply the quantities by the measures involved. Then we divide the sum of the products by the sum of the quantities. Example: A sewer made 10 bags. On 3 bags, she spent 2 hours each; on 4 bags, 3 hours each; and on 3 bags, 1 hour each. What was the average time spent on each bag? Solution: 3 bags x 2 hours = 6 hours 4 bags x 3 hours = 12 hours 3 bags x 1 hour = 3 hours 10 bags = 21 hours 21 hours / 10 bags = 2.1 hours or 2 hours and 6 minutes.
FRACTIONS
A fraction is one or more of the equal parts into which a whole is divided. The terms of the fraction are numerator and denominator. The numerator is the number above the line showing how many of the equal parts are expressed or taken. The denominator is the number below the line showing into how many equal parts the whole is divided. The line between the numerator and the denominator is the vinculum which means divided by.
KINDS OF FRACTIONS
Proper fraction Improper fraction Mixed number Similar fractions Dissimilar fractions Decimal fraction
OTHER TERMS
Least common denominator (LCD) Lowest-terms fraction Reciprocal of a fraction
LAWS OF FRACTIONS
The value of a fraction does not change if its terms are multiplied by the same number except zero. Example: x 3/3 = 3/6 The value of a fraction does not change if its terms are divided by the same number except zero. Example: 3/9 / 3/3 = 1/3
CONVERSION OF FRACTIONS
Improper fraction to a whole or mixed numbers. To change the improper fraction to a whole or mixed number, we divide the numerator of the fraction by its denominator. The remainder becomes the numerator and the divisor the denominator of the fraction. Mixed number to an improper fraction. To change a mixed number to an improper fraction, we multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction. Then, we add the product to the numerator of the fraction over the denominator. Lower terms fraction to higher terms fraction. To raise a fraction from lower to higher terms, we multiply both numerator and denominator by the number that will result to the specified denominator of bigger value. Higher terms fraction to lowest terms fraction. To reduce a fraction from higher to lowest terms, we divide both the numerator and denominator by the greatest common factor. Dissimilar fractions to similar fractions. To change dissimilar fractions we find the LCD and divide it be each denominator. Then we multiply each quotient by the numerator and place it over the LCD
ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
In adding similar fractions, we add the numerator and write the sum over the common denominator. In adding dissimilar fractions, we make the fractions similar before addition. In adding mixed numbers, we add the whole numbers first then combine the two. If the whole numbers are not very large we can change the mixed numbers to improper fractions; then we add.
SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
In subtracting similar fractions, we change the fraction to similar fractions first before we subtract. In subtracting dissimilar fractions, we change the fraction to similar fractions first before we subtract. In subtracting mixed numbers, we subtract the whole numbers first and then the fractions. We can also subtract them by changing the mixed numbers to improper fractions. This will be difficult if the whole numbers are very large.
When the value of the fraction in the subtrahend is bigger than the value in the minuend, we borrow 1 unit from the whole number of the minuend, change it to similar fractions and add it to the fraction. Then we proceed to subtraction. If we change both mixed numbers to improper fractions, we can proceed to subtraction at once without borrowing. When the fractions in the mixed numbers are dissimilar, we change them first to similar fractions; then we subtract.
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
In multiplying fractions, we multiply the numerators together to form a new numerator. Then we multiply the denominators to form new denominator.
CANCELLATION
In canceling factors, we divide a pair of numerator and denominator by the same number just as when we reduce a fraction to lowest terms.
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
In dividing fractions, we invert the divisor and multiply. All rules pertaining to multiplication of fractions will be applied.
RATIO
A ratio is a relation between two like numbers or quantities expressed as a quotient or fraction. We can also reduce ratios to their lowest terms in the same manner that fractions are reduced.
PROPORTIONS
A proportion is a statement that two ratios are equal. There are four terms in a proportion: the first and fourth terms are called extremes; the second and the third are known as the means. Hence, the ratio 6:24 which is equal to the ratio 1:4 can be expressed as a proportion 6: 24 = 1:4, 6 and 4 are the extremes while 24 and 1 are means. To check whether our proportion is correct, the rule is: the product of the means equals the product of the extremes.
CONVERSION TECHNIQUES
To reduce a decimal to a common fraction, we write the given decimal number disregarding the decimal point as the numerator of a common fraction with a denominator of the power of 10 of the given decimal. Examples: .7 = 7/10 There is one decimal place so the denominator is 10. To reduce a common fraction to a decimal, we divide the numerator by the denominator. Example: = 0.5
To change percent to a decimal, we move the decimal point two places to the left and drop the percent sign. If the percent is in fractional units, we change first the fraction to decimal before moving the decimal point. Example: 40% = .40 To change a decimal to a percent, we move the decimal point two places to the right and add the percent sign. Example: .23 = 23%
To change a percent to a fraction, we drop the percen sign and replace it by 100 as denominator. If the percent is in decimal, we move the decimal point two places to the left after dropping the percent sign. The we convert the decimal to its fractional equivalent. If the percent is in fraction, divide it by 100 and drop th percent sign. Example: 27% = 27/100
To change a fraction to a percent, we divide the numerator by the denominator, then we move the decimal point of the quotient two places to the right and add the percent sign. For a mixed number, we change it first to an improper fraction before performing the indicated division. Example: 3/5 = .60 = 60%
PERCENTAGE PROBLEMS
A percentage is the result obtained by taking a certain percent of a number. Percentage is equal to the base times the rate. The base is the number on which the percentage is computed. The rate is the number indicating how many percent or hundredths are taken.
PERCENTAGE FORMULAS
P =R X B R = P/B B = P/R The base (B) is usually preceded by the preposition of in word problems. Of indicates multiplication. The word is is symbolized by the equal sign (=). Other words may be used instead of as as many as , as large as, as great as, as much as.
Note: We dont multiply or divide a number by percent. We always change the percent to a decimal or a fraction first before multiplying or dividing.
To find the percentage of increase or decrease, we multiply the base by the rate and add the product to the base if it is an increase but subtract the product from the base if it is a decrease. B + ( B X R ) = PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE B ( B X R ) = PERCENTAGE OF DECREASE
Example: P 120 increased by 12% is how much? B R = P of increase P 120 + ( P 120 x .12) = P 134.40
To find the rate of increase or decrease, get the difference between the two given related values and divide it by the base or original quantity. Change the fraction to percent if it is needed.
LARGER VALUE SMALLER VALUE BASE OR ORIGINAL QUANTITY = RATE OF INCREASE OR DECREASE
P = BASE OF INCREASE 1 + FRACTION P = BASE OF INCREASE 1 - FRACTION P = BASE OF INCREASE 100% + Given % P = BASE OF INCREASE 100% - Given %
Example: 2/5 greater than amount is P 70? P 70 = P 70 = P 70 = P 70 x 5/7 = P 50 1 + 2/5 5/5 + 2/5 7/5
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 1. Divisibility by 0 or 1 Any number is divisible by 1. Any number divided by 1 is the number itself. 0 divided by any number is 0. Any number divided by 0 is undefined.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 2. Divisibility by 2. A number is divisible by 2 if, and only if, the last digit is even, that is, if it is 0,2,4,6,8,. Rule 3. Divisibility by 3. A number is divisible by 3 and if only if its digital root (sum of the digits) is divisible by 3.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 4. Divisibility by 4 A number is divisible by 4 if, and if only of, the last two digits form a number which is divisible by 4. Rule 5. Divisibility by 5. A number that ends in 0 or 5 is divisible by 5.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 6. Divisible by 6. A number that is divisible both by 2 and 3 is divisible by 6.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 7. Divisibility by 7
To test if the number is divisible by 7 follow these steps. For three or more than three digit number. Multiply the last digit (unit digits) by 2. Get the difference of these product ( from step 1) and the remaining number (without the units digits) Repeat step 1 and 2 until you reached a two-digit difference. If this difference is divisible by 7, then the number is divisible by 7.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 7. Divisibility by 7 If the number consist of more than 3 digits you can use these alternative rule.
Divide the number into periods of three digits each beginning with the last digits. Add together the odd numbered periods, and then all the even numbered periods. Take the difference of the two sums. If this difference is divisible by 7, then the number is divisible by 7.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 8. Divisibility by 8 A number is divisible by 8 if and if only if the last three digits form a number that is divisible by 8.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 9. Divisibility by 9. A number is divisible by 9 if, and only if the digital root ( sum of the digits) is 0 or 9. When the digital root of a number is not 0 or 9, that digital root is the remainder when the number is divided by 9.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 10. Divisibility by 10. A number ending in 0 is always divisible by 10.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 11. Divisibility by 11. To test if the number is divisible by 11, alternatively subtract and add the digits from the last digits to the first, that is from right to left. If the end result is divisible by 11, then the number is divisible by 11, otherwise the end result is the remainder when the number is divisible by 11. OR
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Cont A number is divisible by 11 if the difference (large minus smaller) between the sum of the odd-numbered digits and the sum of the even numbered digits is divisible by 11.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 12. Divisibility by 12. A number is divisible by 12 if, and only if, it is divisible by 3 and 4.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 13. Divisibility by 11,7 and 13 To test if the number with more than three digits is divisible by 7, 11 and 13, follow the step by step procedure: Starting from the right end of the number, divide the number into periods of three digits.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 13. Divisibility by 11,7 and 13 Cont Add the odd numbered periods together and the even numbered periods together. Find the difference of the two sums. If that difference is divisible by 7 or 11 or 13, then the number is divisible by whichever divisor that divides it evenly.
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Rule 14. Divisibility by 25; 75 and 125 A number is divisible by 25 if, and only if, the last two digits form a number divisible by 25. A number divisible by 75 if it is divisible by 3 and 25. A number is divisible by 125 have the last three digits divisible by 125.
Topics on Triangle
Triangle: Triangle ABC (denoted by ABC) is the union of segments AB, BC, and AC. The points A,B, and C are the vertices, the segments AB,BC, and AC are the sides, <A,<B,<C are the angles. Sides Included between two angles: This is the side whose endpoints are the vertices of the two angles.
Topics on Triangle
Angle Included between two sides: This is the angle formed by the two sides. Right triangle: A triangle with one right angle. The sides that are perpendicular (sides forming the right angle) are called the LEGS, and the side opposite the right angle is hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is longer than any of the legs of the right triangle.
Topics on Triangle
Obtuse triangle: A triangle with one obtuse angle. Acute triangle: A triangle which has three acute angles. Isosceles triangle: A triangle with two sides congruent. The congruent sides are called the LEGS and the third side, the BASE. The VERTEX angle is the angle formed by the legs; the two remaining angles are the Base angles.
Topics on Triangle
Scalene triangle: Triangle having no sides congruent. Equilateral triangle: A triangle with all sides congruent. Equiangular triangle: A triangle with three congruent angles. The measure of each is 60 degrees.
Topics on Triangle
Altitude of a triangle: This is a line segment drawn from the vertex of the triangle perpendicular to the line containing the opposite side. Median of the triangle: This is a line segment from the vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Properties of Exponents
xm . x n = xm+n ( xy)n = xnyn (xm)n = xmn x m = xm n ; m > n ym (x/y)n = xnyn x0 = 1 x-n = 1/ xn ; x 0
Cr=
Pr (E) =
Where n = no. of successes N = total number of possible outcomes
Scientific Notation
A number is expressed in scientific notation when it is written in the form a x 10n where 1 is less than/equal to a < 10 and n is an integer.
RADICAL EXPRESSIONS
If n is a positive integer greater than 1, a and b are real numbers such that xn = a, then x is the nth root of a. Let n be a positive integer greater than 1, and let a be a real number such that is denoted in real numbers. Then, a1/n =
Radicals
If n is a positive integer greater than 1, and a and b are real numbers such that bn =a, then b is an nth root of a. Example: 7 is a square root of 49 because 72 = 49; furthermore -7 is also a square root of 49 because (-7)2 = 49
Radicals
Let n be a positive integer greater than 1, and a be a real number. The principal nth root of a is denoted by , and has the following defining properties: If a then is the positive nth root of a. If a < 0 and n is odd, then is the negative nth root of a , and = 0
has no meaning in
Radicals