Governance and Leadership Theories of Leadership

Yonas T.

Department of Governance and Development Studies Jimma University

 J. M. Burns book on political leadership marked major transition in the development of leadership theory. He was the first to conceptualize leadership as a social process involving leaders and followers with common goals. His work focused on transforming leadership.

His theory elevated the significance of followers and the leader-follower relationship in the leadership equation. Other subsequent theories are largely influenced by the works of Burns.

 Six major theories: 1)Transforming Leadership 2)Transformational Leadership 3)Transactional Leadership 4)Followership 5)Servant

1) Transforming Leadership According to Burns (1978), transforming leadership occurs when: -one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. Although initially separate, the purposes and goals of both leaders and followers become fused. Leaders play a major role in shaping the relationship with followers.

 Burns believed that leaders are commonly more skillful in: - evaluating followers motives, anticipating their responses to an initiative, and - estimating their power base. Transforming leadership, in the end, is a moral process because leaders engage with followers based on shared motives, values and goals.
Burns asserts that only followers can ultimately define their needs. This implies that followers must maintain freedom of choice between real alternatives.

 Transforming leaders operate at the highest stages of moral development. Burns asserted that transforming leaders are guided by near-universal ethical principles of justice. -including human rights and respect for individual dignity. Nevertheless transforming leadership is grounded in conflict. Conflict is often compelling, because it galvanizes and motivates people. Leaders dont shun conflict; they embrace it by both shaping and mediating conflict.

2) Transformational Leadership Developed by Bass (1996) built upon Burns original idea of transforming leadership. Bass began by empirically examining Burns theory and calling his revised theory transformational theory. The terms may seem nearly identical. Nonetheless, there is an important distinction: (a)Burns theory focuses more on societal reform by moral elevation of followers values and needs; (b)Bass transformational leadership focuses on attaining practical organizational objectives.

 Bass (1985) said that transformational leaders are able to achieve three things: (a)make followers aware of the importance of task outcomes (b)induce followers to transcend personal interests for the sake of the team or organization, and (c)move followers toward higher-order needs. As a result, followers feel more confidence in the leader and report feeling great trust, loyalty, and respect.

 The most commonly accepted transformational leader behaviors comprise four categories: (a)idealized influence; (b)individualized consideration; (c) inspirational motivation; and (d) intellectual stimulation

3) Transactional Leadership Transforming and transformational leadership do contrast with transactional leadership. In transactional leadership, the leadership relationship is limited to the leaders ability to appeal to followers selfinterest. The appeal is for the purpose of an exchange of valued things. Transactional leadership behavior refer to activities that help clarify expectation for direct reports. It helps direct reports achieve desired rewards and avoid punishments, and help facilitate desired outcomes.

 Transactional leader behaviors commonly comprise three categories: (a)contingent reward; (b)management by exception(active); (c)management by exception(passive). Although transformational and transactional leader behaviors are distinct, they are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Bass asserted that effective leaders make use of both types of leadership.

 Transformational leader behaviors enlist enthusiasm and commitment. Transactional behaviors achieve compliance with leader requests. Recent versions of transformational and transactional theory include third category leadership: laissez-faire. This category represents an absence of effective leadership and the type of leader who is passive or indifferent to direct report.

Transformational Leadership
Idealized Influence
Leaders serve as outstanding models. They display conviction, emphasize important personal values and connect them with organizational goals and ethical consequences of decisions. Leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future and challenge followers high standards and expectations. Leaders provide encouragement, optimism, and purpose for what needs to be done. Leaders question old assumptions and stimulate new perspectives and innovative ways of doing things. They encourage followers to think creatively to address current and future challenges. Leaders provide a supportive environment and carefully listen to followers needs. Leaders also advise, teach, or coach their followers with the intention of advancing follower development.

Inspirational motivation

Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration

Transactional Leadership
Contingent Reward Leaders offer followers rewards in exchange for desired efforts. Behaviors in this category revolve around clarifying expectations and exchange of promises. Leaders observe follower behavior and take corrective action when followers deviate from expected performance.

Management by exception (Active)

Management by exception (Passive)

Leaders choose not to, or fail to, intervene until a problem becomes serious. In essence, leaders do not intervene until a problem is brought to their attention.

Laissez-faire Leadership (Non-leadership)

Laissez-faire

Leaders avoid accepting responsibility and delay or even fail to follow up on requests.

This type of leader behavior also includes little or no effort to address followers needs.
It is essentially an absence of leadership.

4. Followership Researchers have proposed this as a theory that describe the leadership capacities of followers.
It aims to raise the importance of the role of followers in the leadership process. This by no means minimizes the relevance of leaders but rather enhances the understanding of the vital roles that followers play in the leadership relationship. Hence, the theory gives due recognition to the role of followers in leadership.

Effective Followership Kelly (1988) asserted that what differentiated effective from ineffective followers are their enthusiasm, intelligence, and self-reliant participation. He described a two-dimensional model that explained follower behavior: a)The degree to which followers exercise independent and critical thinking; b)The second ranks them on a passive-active scale. Based on the two dimensions, four categories of followers emerge.

Independent, Critical Thinking

Alienated Followers Effective Followers

Passive Active

Survivor

Sheep

Yes people

Dependent, Uncritical Thinking

a) Sheep: are passive and generally unwilling to accept responsibility. -They typically complete tasks given to them but rarely demonstrate initiative beyond tasks. b) Yes People: are more involved but are equally unwilling to demonstrate innovation or creativity. c) Alienated followers: express critical and independent thinking but are passive. -Although they rarely openly oppose the leader, they are often cynical and disgruntled. d) Effective followers: think for themselves in carrying out tasks and bring energy and enthusiasm while demonstrating initiative and assertiveness.

 At the center of the diagram are survivors who tend to adapt and survive change well but live by the slogan better safe than sorry. Four Qualities Shared By Effective Followers: a)they manage themselves well; b)they are committed to the organization or purpose outside themselves; c)they build their competence; and, d)they are courageous, credible and honest. Effective followers openly disagree with the leader and are not intimidated by hierarchy. Because they demonstrate initiative, they rarely need elaborate supervisory systems.

5. Servant Leadership It is first proposed by Greenleaf in his 1977 work. For him, the primary responsibility of leaders is to provide services to others. Spears (1995:2-5) asserted that the servant leader emphasizes: -service to others; -a holistic approach to work; -a sense of community; and -shared decision making power.

 For the servant leader, taking care of other peoples needs takes highest priority. Servant leadership, in essence, is a philosophic approach to life and work. It is a way of being that has the potential to create positive change throughout society.

Characteristics of a Servant leader a)Listening to others; b)Empathy: accepting people for their talents, spirits, etc; c)Healing: mending broken spirits; d)Self-awareness: aides and strengthens the leader; e)Persuasion: convince rather than coerce; f)Conceptualization: capacity to dream great dreams; g)Foresight: using past and present experiences to determine future decisions; h)Stewardship: affecting greater good of society; i)Commitment to growth of people; and, j)Building community in a giving work institution.

 Comparison with other models

Source: Graham (1991).
Weberian Charismatic Authority Source of Charisma Divine Gift Situational Context Socioeconomic distress of Followers Nature of Charismatic Gift Response of Followers Consequence of Charisma Visionary solutions to distress Recognition of genuine divine gist Followers material well-being improved Transactional Leadership Leader Training and Skills Unilateral or Hierarchical power Vision for organization: Adept at HRm Heightened Motivation Leader or organizational goals met Servant Leadership

Humility, spiritual insight Relational (mutual) power Vision and practice of a way of life focused on service Emulation of leaders service orientation Autonomy and moral development of followers:.

Other theories: Highlights 1)Great Man Theory It assumes that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great leaders are born, not made. These theory often portrays great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of political-military leadership. The great man theory of leadership became popular during the 19th-century.

2) Trait Theory Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theory. It assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theory often identifies particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. The scientific study of leadership began with a focus on the traits of effective leaders.

This theory postulates that people are either born or not born with the qualities that predispose them to success in leadership roles.

 That is, that certain inherited qualities, such as personality and cognitive ability, are what underlie effective leadership. There have been hundreds of studies to determine the most important leadership traits. While there is always going to be some disagreement, intelligence, sociability, and drive (aka determination) are consistently cited as key qualities.

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