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PROTECTION IS EFFECTIVELY AN INSURANCE POLICY - AN INVESTMENT AGAINST DAMAGE FROM FUTURE FAULTS.
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
Damage to adjacent plant : As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly; Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply.
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
SUMMARY : Protection must : Detect faults and abnormal operating conditions; Isolate the faulted equipment. So as to : Limit damage caused by fault energy; Limit effect on rest of system.
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading Oil Leakage Ageing
Overhead Lines Lightning Kites Trees Moisture Salt Birds Broken Conductors
Unbalanced Load
Types of Fault
/E a b c e a b c e a b c
//E
a b c
3/E
a b c e
Types of Fault
b
c e
Types of Fault
a OPEN CIRCUIT + /E b c e
Types of Fault
Types Of Protection
Types of Protection
Fuses For : LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, VTs, Auxiliary Supplies Direct Acting AC Trip For : LV Systems, Pole Mounted Reclosers Overcurrent and Earthfault Widely used in all Power Systems Non-Directional Voltage Dependant Directional
Types of Protection
Differential For : Feeders, Busbars, Transformers, Generators, etc. High Impedance Restricted E/F Biased (or low-impedance) Pilot Wire Digital
Types of Protection
Distance For : Distribution Feeders and Transmission and Sub-Transmission Circuits Also used as Back-up Protection for Transformers and Generators Phase Comparison For : Transmission Lines Directional Comparison For : Transmission Lines
Types of Protection
Miscellaneous Under and Over Voltage Under and Over Frequency Special Relays for Generators, Transformers, Motors, etc. Control Relays Auto-Reclose, Tap Change Control, etc.
51
Trip Coil IF
51
DC BATTERY
R1
R2
IF1
T
IS2 IS1
Relay closest to fault must operate first Other relays must have adequate additional operating time to prevent them operating Current setting chosen to allow FLC Consider worst case conditions, operating modes and current flows
Protected Circuit
Protected Circuit
ZS
Relay PT.
IR
ZL
VS
VR
ZLOAD
Normal Load
Impedance measured
ZR
VR Z L Z LOAD R
ZF
VS
VR
ZLOAD
Fault
Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect VR called Restraining Voltage Increasing IR has an Operating Effect
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
jX
ZL
R TRIP STABLE
IF
zF
jI X IZ V2 V1
VF
V3 IR
Trip
TRIP
STABLE
Spring
Restrain
Operate VF IZ
Voltage to Relay = V Current to Relay = I Replica Impedance = Z Trip Condition : where : S1 = IZ Z S2 = V ZF S2 < S1
Ampere Turns :
Oil conservator
3 minimum Transformer
Classes of Protection
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection : No specific point downstream up to which protection will protect Will operate for faults on the protected equipment; May also operate for faults on downstream equipment, which has its own protection; Need for discrimination with downstream protection, usually by means of time grading.
Classes of Protection
Unit, or Restricted Protection : Has an accurately defined zone of protection An item of power system plant is protected as a unit; Will not operate for out of zone faults, thus no back-up protection for downstream faults.
Co-ordination
LOAD
F1
LOAD
F2
F3
Co-ordinate protection so that relay nearest to fault operates first minimises amount of system disconnection.
2 21 25 27 30 32 37 40 46 49 50 79 81 85 86
Time Delay Distance Synchronising Check Undervoltage Annunciator Directional Power Undercurrent or Under Power Field Failure Negative Sequence Thermal Instantaneous Overcurrent Auto-Reclose Frequency Signal Receive Lock-Out
Time Delayed Overcurrent Time Delayed Earthfault Circuit Breaker Auxiliary Switch - Normally Open Auxiliary Switch - Normally Closed Overvoltage Voltage or Current Balance Instantaneous Earth Fault (High Impedance) Directional Overcurrent Directional Earthfault Alarm Signal Receive Lock-Out Differential
Speed Fast operation : Minimises damage and danger Very fast operation : Minimises system instability Discrimination and security can be costly to achieve as it generally involves additional signaling / communications equipment.
Fault Position Discrimination Power system divided into PROTECTED ZONES Must isolate only the faulty equipment or section
Zones of Protection
TRANSF- BUSBAR ORMER ZONE ZONE FEEDER ZONE GENERATION ZONE
BUSBAR ZONE
BUSBAR ZONE
FEEDER ZONE
Protection Overlap
BBP 1
BBP 2
J Z
LP H
LP J
LP K
LP L
Dependability / Reliability Protection must operate when required to Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and disruptive Faults are rare. Protection must operate even after years of inactivity Improved by use of: duplicate protection Back-up protection and
Security / Stability Protection must not operate when not required to, e.g. due to : Load switching Faults on other parts of the system Recoverable power swings
Cost
The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance policy against damage to plant, and loss of supply and customer goodwill. Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection should be balanced against the cost of potential hazards. There is an economic limit on what can be spent. MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by protection.
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
Cost
TOTAL COST should take account of : Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring Setting studies Commissioning CTs and VTs Maintenance and repairs to relays Damage repair if protection fails to operate Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily
Cost
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Large numbers of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders Economics often overrides technical issues Protection may be the minimum consistent with statutory safety regulations Speed less important than on transmission systems Back-up protection can be simple and is often inherent in the main protection Although important, the consequences of maloperation or failure to operate is less serious than for transmission systems
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
Cost
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics Economics cannot be ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed protection Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital cost of power system elements protected Risk of security of supply should be reduced to lowest practical levels High speed protection requires unit protection Duplicate protections used to improve reliability Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be required to maintain system stability
> Basic Protection Philosophy - January 2004
Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so : Never fuse CT circuits; VTs must be fused or protected by MCB. Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to allow commissioning and periodic injection testing of relays. Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only; Wire gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical strength.
Auxiliary Supplies
Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS PROTECTION and TRIP RELAYS
AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems. DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are more secure than AC supplies. SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protection. DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra security. MODERN PROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary supply. During unoperated (healthy) conditions, they draw a small QUIESCENT load to keep relay circuits energised. During operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to operation of output elements.
Relay Outputs
TRIP OUTPUT CONTACTS : Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and carry the circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a heavier duty tripping relay will be needed. Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to interrupt trip coil current. This extends the life of the protection relay trip contacts. TYPE OF CONTACTS :
Make (M) / Normally Open (NO) Break (B) / Normally Closed (NC) Changeover (C/O) Close when energised, typically used for tripping. Close when de-energised.