Presented by

Prof. K. V. Rao
Academic Advisor Petroleum Courses JNTUK

Reservoir
Hydrocarbon accumulations in geological traps can be classified as reservoir, field, and pool. A reservoir is a porous and permeable underground formation containing an individual bank of hydrocarbons confined by impermeable rock or water barriers and is characterized by a single natural pressure system. A field is an area that consists of one or more reservoirs all related to the same structural feature. A pool contains one or more reservoirs in isolated structures.

Hydrocarbon accumulations are classified as oil, gas condensate, and gas reservoirs. An oil that is at a pressure above its bubble-point pressure is called an undersaturated oil because it can dissolve more gas at the given temperature. An oil that is at its bubble-point pressure is called a saturated oil because it can dissolve no more gas at the given temperature.

Single (liquid)-phase flow prevails in an undersaturated oil reservoir, whereas two-phase (liquid oil and free gas) flow exists in a saturated oil reservoir.
Hydrocarbon reservoir in which conditions of temperature and pressure have resulted in the condensation of the heavier hydrocarbon constituents from the reservoir gas. Hydrocarbon reservoir in which conditions of temperature and pressure are such that no heavier components are present in gas.

Wells
Wells in the same reservoir can fall into categories of oil, condensate, and gas wells depending on the producing gasoil ratio (GOR). Gas wells are wells with producing GOR being greater than 100,000 scf/stb; condensate wells are those with producing GOR being less than 100,000 scf/stb but greater than 5,000 scf/stb; and wells with producing GOR being less than 5,000 scf/stb are classified as oil wells. Oil reservoirs can be classified on the basis of boundary type, which determines driving mechanism, and which are as follows: Water-drive reservoir Gas-cap drive reservoir Dissolved-gas drive reservoir

In water-drive reservoirs, the oil zone is connected by a continuous

path to the surface groundwater system (aquifer). The pressure caused by the column of water to the surface forces the oil (and gas) to the top of the reservoir against the impermeable barrier that restricts the oil and gas (the trap boundary). This pressure will force the oil and gas toward the wellbore. With the same oil production, reservoir pressure will be maintained longer (relative to other mechanisms of drive) when there is an active water drive. Edgewater drive reservoir is the most preferable type of reservoir compared to bottom-water drive. The reservoir pressure can remain at its initial value above bubble-point pressure so that single-phase liquid flow exists in the reservoir for maximum well productivity. Edge water occurs off the flanks of the structure at the edge of the oil.

A steady-state flow condition can prevail in a edge-water drive reservoir for a long time before water breakthrough into the well. Bottom-water drive reservoir (Fig. 1.3) is less preferable because of water-coning problems that can affect oil production economics due to water treatment and disposal issues.

In a gas-cap drive reservoir, gas-cap drive is

the drive mechanism where the gas in the reservoir has come out of solution and rises to the top of the reservoir to form a gas cap (Fig. 1.4). Thus, the oil below the gas cap can be produced. If the gas in the gas cap is taken out of the reservoir early in the production process, the reservoir pressure will decrease rapidly. Sometimes an oil reservoir is subjected to both water and gas-cap drive.

A dissolved-gas drive reservoir (Fig. 1.5) is also called a solution-gas

drive reservoir and volumetric reservoir. The oil reservoir has a fixed oil volume surrounded by no flow boundaries (faults or pinch-outs). Dissolved-gas drive is the drive mechanism where the reservoir gas is held in solution in the oil (and water). The reservoir gas is actually in a liquid form in a dissolved solution with the liquids (at atmospheric conditions) from the reservoir. Compared to the water- and gas-drive reservoirs, expansion of solution (dissolved) gas in the oil provides a weak driving mechanism in a volumetric reservoir. In the regions where the oil pressure drops to below the bubble-point pressure, gas escapes from the oil and oilgas two-phase flow exists. To improve oil recovery in the solution-gas reservoir, early pressure maintenance is usually preferred.

Well
Oil and gas wells are drilled like an upside-down telescope. The large-diameter borehole section is at the top of the well. Each section is cased to the surface, or a liner is placed in the well that laps over the last casing in the well. Each casing or liner is cemented into the well (usually up to at least where the cement overlaps the previous cement job). The last casing in the well is the production casing (or production liner). Once the production casing has been cemented into the well, the production tubing is run into the well. Usually a packer is used near the bottom of the tubing to isolate the annulus between the outside of the tubing and the inside of the casing. Thus, the produced fluids are forced to move out of the perforation into the bottom of the well and then into the inside of the tubing. Packers can be actuated by either mechanical or hydraulic mechanisms. The production tubing is often (particularly during initial well flow) provided with a bottom-hole choke to control the initial well flow (i.e., to restrict overproduction and loss of reservoir pressure).

Figure 1.6 shows a typical flowing oil well, defined as a well producing solely because of the natural pressure of the reservoir. It is composed of casings, tubing, packers, downhole chokes (optional), wellhead, Christmas tree, and surface chokes.

Most wells produce oil through tubing strings, mainly because a tubing string provides good sealing performance and allows the use of gas expansion to lift oil. The American Petroleum Institute (API) defines tubing size using nominal diameter and weight (per foot). The nominal diameter is based on the internal diameter of the tubing body. The weight of tubing determines the tubing outer diameter. Steel grades of tubing are designated H-40, J-55, C-75, L-80, N-80, C-90, and P-105, where the digits represent the minimum yield strength in 1,000 psi.

The wellhead is defined as the surface equipment set below the master valve. As we can see in Fig. 1.7, it includes casing heads and a tubing head. The casing head (lowermost) is threaded onto the surface casing. This can also be a flanged or studded connection.

A casing head is a mechanical assembly used for hanging a casing string (Fig. 1.8). Depending on casing programs in well drilling, several casing heads can be installed during well construction. The casing head has a bowl that supports the casing hanger.

This casing hanger is threaded onto the top of the production casing (or uses friction grips to hold the casing). As in the case of the production tubing, the production casing is landed in tension so that the casing hanger actually supports the production casing (down to the freeze point). In a similar manner, the intermediate casing(s) are supported by their respective casing hangers (and bowls). All of these casing head arrangements are supported by the surface casing, which is in compression and cemented to the surface. A well completed with three casing strings has two casing heads. The uppermost casing head supports the production casing. The lowermost casing head sits on the surface casing (threaded to the top of the surface casing).

Most flowing wells are produced through a string of tubing run inside the production casing string. At the surface, the tubing is supported by the tubing head (i.e., the tubing head is used for hanging tubing string on the production casing head [Fig. 1.9]). The tubing head supports the tubing string at the surface (this tubing is landed on the tubing head so that it is in tension all the way down to the packer).

The equipment at the top of the producing wellhead is called a Christmas tree (Fig. 1.10) and it is used to control flow. The Christmas tree is installed above the tubing head. An adaptor is a piece of equipment used to join the two.

The Christmas tree may have one flow outlet (a tee) or two flow outlets (a cross). The master valve is installed below the tee or cross. To replace a master valve, the tubing must be plugged. A Christmas tree consists of a main valve, wing valves, and a needle valve. These valves are used for closing the well when needed. At the top of the tee structure (on the top of the Christmas tree), there is a pressure gauge that indicates the pressure in the tubing.

The wing valves and their gauges allow access (for pressure measurements and gas or liquid flow) to the annulus spaces (Fig. 1.11).

Surface choke (i.e., a restriction in the flowline) is a piece of equipment used to control the flow rate (Fig. 1.12).

In most flowing wells, the oil production rate is altered by adjusting the choke size. The choke causes back-pressure in the line. The back-pressure (caused by the chokes or other restrictions in the flowline) increases the bottomhole flowing pressure. Increasing the bottom-hole flowing pressure decreases the pressure drop from the reservoir to the wellbore (pressure drawdown). Thus, increasing the back-pressure in the wellbore decreases the flow rate from the reservoir. In some wells, chokes are installed in the lower section of tubing strings. This choke arrangement reduces wellhead pressure and enhances oil production rate as a result of gas expansion in the tubing string. For gas wells, use of down-hole chokes minimizes the gas hydrate problem in the well stream. A major disadvantage of using down-hole chokes is that replacing a choke is costly.

Certain procedures must be followed to open or close a well. Before opening, check all the surface equipment such as safety valves, fittings, and so on. The burner of a line heater must be lit before the well is opened.

This is necessary because the pressure drop across a choke cools the fluid and may cause gas hydrates or paraffin to deposit out. A gas burner keeps the involved fluid (usually water) hot. Fluid from the well is carried through a coil of piping. The choke is installed in the heater. Well fluid is heated both before and after it flows through the choke. The upstream heating helps melt any solids that may be present in the producing fluid. The downstream heating prevents hydrates and paraffins from forming at the choke.

Surface vessels should be open and clear before the well is allowed to flow. All valves that are in the master valve and other downstream valves are closed. Then follow the following procedure to open a well: 1. The operator barely opens the master valve (just a crack), and escaping fluid makes a hissing sound. When the fluid no longer hisses through the valve, the pressure has been equalized, and then the master valve is opened wide. If there are no oil leaks, the operator cracks the next downstream valve that is closed. Usually, this will be either the second (backup) master valve or a wing valve. Again, when the hissing sound stops, the valve is opened wide. The operator opens the other downstream valves the same way. To read the tubing pressure gauge, the operator must open the needle valve at the top of the Christmas tree. After reading and recording the pressure, the operator may close the valve again to protect the gauge.

2.

3. 4.

The procedure for shutting-in a well is the opposite of the procedure for opening a well. In shutting-in the well, the master valve is closed last. Valves are closed rather rapidly to avoid wearing of the valve (to prevent erosion). At least two valves must be closed.