Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; Lift and Drag

Eric G. Paterson
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering The Pennsylvania State University

Spring 2005

Note to Instructors
These slides were developed1, during the spring semester 2005, as a teaching aid for the undergraduate Fluid Mechanics course (ME33: Fluid Flow) in the Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering at Penn State University. This course had two sections, one taught by myself and one taught by Prof. John Cimbala. While we gave common homework and exams, we independently developed lecture notes. This was also the first semester that Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications was used at PSU. My section had 93 students and was held in a classroom with a computer, projector, and blackboard. While slides have been developed for each chapter of Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, I used a combination of blackboard and electronic presentation. In the student evaluations of my course, there were both positive and negative comments on the use of electronic presentation. Therefore, these slides should only be integrated into your lectures with careful consideration of your teaching style and course objectives.

Eric Paterson Penn State, University Park August 2005

1 These

slides were originally prepared using the LaTeX typesetting system (http://www.tug.org/) and the beamer class (http://latex-beamer.sourceforge.net/), but were translated to PowerPoint for wider dissemination by McGraw-Hill.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Objectives
Have an intuitive understanding of the various physical phenomena such as drag, friction and pressure drag, drag reduction, and lift. Calculate the drag force associated with flow over common geometries. Understand the effects of flow regime on the drag coefficients associated with flow over cylinders and spheres Understand the fundamentals of flow over airfoils, and calculate the drag and lift forces acting on airfoils.
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Motivation

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Motivation

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

External Flow
Bodies and vehicles in motion, or with flow over them, experience fluid-dynamic forces and moments. Examples include: aircraft, automobiles, buildings, ships, submarines, turbomachines. These problems are often classified as External Flows. Fuel economy, speed, acceleration, maneuverability, stability, and control are directly related to the aerodynamic/hydrodynamic forces and moments. General 6DOF motion of vehicles is described by 6 equations for the linear (surge, heave, sway) and angular (roll, pitch, yaw) momentum.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Fluid Dynamic Forces and Moments

Ships in waves present one of the most difficult 6DOF problems.

Airplane in level steady flight: drag = thrust and lift = weight.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Drag and Lift

Fluid dynamic forces are due to pressure and viscous forces acting on the body surface. Drag: component parallel to flow direction. Lift: component normal to flow direction.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Drag and Lift

Lift and drag forces can be found by integrating pressure and wall-shear stress.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Drag and Lift

In addition to geometry, lift FL and drag FD forces are a function of density and velocity V. Dimensional analysis gives 2 dimensionless parameters: lift and drag coefficients.

Area A can be frontal area (drag applications), planform area (wing aerodynamics), or wettedsurface area (ship hydrodynamics).

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Example: Automobile Drag

Scion XB Porsche 911

CD = 1.0, A = 25 ft2, CDA = 25ft2

CD = 0.28, A = 10 ft2, CDA = 2.8ft2

Drag force FD=1/2V2(CDA) will be ~ 10 times larger for Scion XB

Source is large CD and large projected area Power consumption P = FDV =1/2V3(CDA) for both scales with V3!
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Drag and Lift

For applications such as tapered wings, CL and CD may be a function of span location. For these applications, a local CL,x and CD,x are introduced and the total lift and drag is determined by integration over the span L

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Lofting a Tapered Wing

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Friction and Pressure Drag

Fluid dynamic forces are comprised of pressure and friction effects. Often useful to decompose,
FD = FD,friction + FD,pressure CD = CD,friction + CD,pressure
Pressure drag

Friction drag

This forms the basis of ship model testing where it is assumed that
CD,pressure = f(Fr) CD,friction = f(Re)

Friction & pressure drag

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Streamlining
Streamlining reduces drag by reducing FD,pressure, at the cost of increasing wetted surface area and FD,friction. Goal is to eliminate flow separation and minimize total drag FD Also improves structural acoustics since separation and vortex shedding can excite structural modes.
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Streamlining

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Streamlining via Active Flow Control

Pneumatic controls for blowing air from slots: reduces drag, improves fuel economy for heavy trucks (Dr. Robert Englar, Georgia Tech Research Institute).
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

CD of Common Geometries
For many geometries, total drag CD is constant for Re > 104 CD can be very dependent upon orientation of body. As a crude approximation, superposition can be used to add CD from various components of a system to obtain overall drag. However, there is no mathematical reason (e.g., linear PDE's) for the success of doing this.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

CD of Common Geometries

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

CD of Common Geometries

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

CD of Common Geometries

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Flat Plate Drag

Drag on flat plate is solely due to friction created by laminar, transitional, and turbulent boundary layers.
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Flat Plate Drag

Local friction coefficient
Laminar:

Turbulent:

Average friction coefficient

Laminar:
Turbulent:

For some cases, plate is long enough for turbulent flow, but not long enough to neglect laminar portion

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Effect of Roughness
Similar to Moody Chart for pipe flow Laminar flow unaffected by roughness Turbulent flow significantly affected: Cf can increase by 7x for a given Re

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Cylinder and Sphere Drag

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Cylinder and Sphere Drag

Flow is strong function of Re. Wake narrows for turbulent flow since TBL (turbulent boundary layer) is more resistant to separation due to adverse pressure gradient. sep,lam 80 sep,lam 140

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Effect of Surface Roughness

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Lift
Lift is the net force (due to pressure and viscous forces) perpendicular to flow direction. Lift coefficient

A=bc is the planform area

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Computing Lift
Potential-flow approximation gives accurate CL for angles of attack below stall: boundary layer can be neglected. Thin-foil theory: superposition of uniform stream and vortices on mean camber line. Java-applet panel codes available online: http://www.aa.nps.navy.mil/~jones/online _tools/panel2/ Kutta condition required at trailing edge: fixes stagnation pt at TE.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Effect of Angle of Attack

Thin-foil theory shows that CL2 for < stall Therefore, lift increases linearly with Objective for most applications is to achieve maximum CL/CD ratio. CD determined from windtunnel or CFD (BLE or NSE). CL/CD increases (up to order 100) until stall.
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Effect of Foil Shape

Thickness and camber influences pressure distribution (and load distribution) and location of flow separation. Foil database compiled by Selig (UIUC) http://www.aae.uiuc.e du/m-selig/ads.html

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Effect of Foil Shape

Figures from NPS airfoil java applet. Color contours of pressure field Streamlines through velocity field Plot of surface pressure Camber and thickness shown to have large impact on flow field.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

End Effects of Wing Tips

Tip vortex created by leakage of flow from highpressure side to lowpressure side of wing. Tip vortices from heavy aircraft persist far downstream and pose danger to light aircraft. Also sets takeoff and landing separation at busy airports.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

End Effects of Wing Tips

Tip effects can be reduced by attaching endplates or winglets. Trade-off between reducing induced drag and increasing friction drag. Wing-tip feathers on some birds serve the same function.
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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Lift Generated by Spinning

Superposition of Uniform stream + Doublet + Vortex

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag

Lift Generated by Spinning

CL strongly depends on rate of rotation. The effect of rate of rotation on CD is small. Baseball, golf, soccer, tennis players utilize spin. Lift generated by rotation is called The Magnus Effect.

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Chapter 11: Flow over bodies; lift and drag