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Chapter 6
The Operational
Amplifier
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The operational amplifier or op amp for short,
finds daily usage in a large variety of
electronic applications.
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op amps have three principal terminals:





the output
the non-inverting input
the
inverting
input
Ideal Op Amp Rules
No current ever flows into either
input terminal.
There is no voltage difference
between the two input terminals.

The op amp acts to make this
happen!

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Apply KVL, Ohms
law, and the ideal op
amp rules to find
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v
out
=
R
f
R
1
v
in
Example: v
in
(t)=5 sin 3t mV, R
f
=47 k, R
1
=4.7 k

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v
out
(t) = -50 sin 3t mV

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v
out
= 1+
R
f
R
1
|
\

|
.
|
v
in
To solve, use KVL, KCL,
and op amp rules.
Suggested circuit variables to
perform the circuit analysis
Example: v
in
(t)=5 sin 3t mV, R
f
=47 k, R
1
=4.7 k

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v
out
(t) = 55 sin 3t mV



v
out
(t) =v
in
(t)


this design allows connection of a
practical voltage source to a load without
experiencing voltage droop!
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v
out
=
R
f
R
(v
1
+v
2
+v
3
)
This amplifier performs the operation of adding.
It also introduces a gain of R
f
/R
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v
out
=
R
f
R
|
\

|
.
|
R
2
R
1
|
\

|
.
|
(v
1
+ v
2
) This voltage is not
affected by the
circuit on the right.
Op amps can be combined in stages to create the
desired relationship between the outputs and the inputs.
Zener diode: i=0 if v<4.7 volts
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This circuit will produce an
accurate voltage regardless of the
age of the battery V
bat
.

With a reference voltage source V
ref
, we can
drive a constant current I
s
=V
ref
/ R
ref
through
any load R
L
.

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The op amp can be modeled as a dependent
voltage source, with the following components
as shown:
input resistance R
i
output resistance R
o
open loop gain A


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Example:
v
in
(t)=5 sin 3t mV,
R
f
=47 k,
R
1
=4.7 k

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For a 741op amp (A=200,000, R
i
=2M, R
o
=75
v
out
(t) = -49.997 sin 3t mV.
An ideal op amp produces v
out
(t) = -50 sin 3t mV.
[Analyze the detailed op amp model using nodal analysis.]


When A=, R
o
=0 , and R
i
= , the op amp
behaves according to the ideal op amp rules.
(v
d
=0 and i
in
=0)
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When v
1
= v
2
= v
CM,
the output should be zero,
but real op amps produce a small common
mode voltage v
oCM.
A
CM
=| v
oCM
/ v
CM
|
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The enormous but unpredictable gain of the op amp is made
usable through negative feedback.
When v
in
goes up, v
d
goes down, and the op amp reacts by
lowering v
out
until the unwanted non-zero v
d
is pushed back
to zero.
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this feedback
resistor allows the
output to affect the
input terminal.
An op amp requires power supplies.
Usually, equal and opposite
voltages are connect to the V
+
and
V
-
terminals.
Typical values are 5 to 24 volts.
The power supply ground must be
the same as the signal ground.

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in this example +18V is connected to V
+

and -18 V is connected to V
-
v
out
=10v
in,
but only up to the 18 V supplies
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Non-zero output offsets can be removed:
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Slew rate is the maximum V/s for output.







examples: input (green) and output (red)
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Op amps in open loop can be used to make
decisions. In this case, is v
in
>2.5 V?
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Design a circuit that provides a logic 1 5 V output if a
certain voltage signal drops below 3 V, and zero volts
otherwise.


Answer:
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This device allows precise amplification of
small voltage differences:
v
out
=K(v
+
-v
-
)
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