Air Data and Airspeed Measurement 1

Air Data and Airspeed Measurement

Pitot Static system
Pitot Static pressure are used for:
Feedback data in control system.
Regulate the cabin pressure.
Mach No. Warning
Data for flight recorder.
Cockpit indicators
Airspeed
Altimeter.
P
P

P
s

ASI M
ALT
ASI = airspeed indicator
M = Mach meter
ALT = altimeter
P
p
= pitot pressure
P
s
= static pressure
Airspeed
dS
S
P
P
c
c
+
P
Referring to Newtons second law
a M F =

dA dS
S
P
P PdA
dt
dU
) dAdS (
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ =
(7)
dS
dA dA
For each molecule, the acceleration is given by;
t
U
S
U
U
t
U
dt
dS
S
U
dt
dU
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
= (8)
Substitute equation (8) into equation (7), we
have
dSdA
S
P
t
U
S
U
U ) dAdS (
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c

(9)
For steady state flow,
0
t
=
c
c
equation (9) becomes,
0 U
2 S S
P
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

c
c
+
c
c
(10)
For discrete calculation,


0
2
0
2
2
2
2
1 2 1
2
=

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
+
A
A
) U U ( P P
S
U
S
P
Now consider within adiabatic flow
}
=
(

0 U
2
1
dP
1
2
(11)
From Thermodynamics theory for adiabatic flow, we
have;
1 /
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o o o
T
T
P
P
Where = the air density at sea level,
P
o
= atmospheric pressure at sea level
= 1.4 for air
Integrating equation (11) and using adiabatic equation
above gives;
= +


2
2
1
1
U
P
) ( Constant
(12)
(13)
From State equation,
RT
P
=

The gas constant is given by,

=
1
C R
p
(14)
(15)
Substituting for

P
in equation (13) and using
equations (14) and (15) gives:
Const U
2
1
T C
2
p
= +
(15b)
Equations (13) and (15) are statements of energy in an
adiabatic flow for ideal gas and can be used to
calculate atmospheric free stream velocity.
Using equation (13) on an air stream within stream
tube, gives;
P
1
U
1
,
1
dS
P
2
U
2
,
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
U
2
1 P
1
U
2
1 P
1
+

|
|
.
|

\
|


= +

|
|
.
|

\
|


(16)
If we choose;
Location 1 is at the free stream with;
P
1
= P
s
(Static Pressure)
U
1
= V (Free stream Velocity)
Location 2 is at the tip of pitot tube with;
P
2
= P
p
(Pitot Pressure)
U
2
= 0
Substitute into equation (16), we have;
2
p
2
1
s
P
1
V
2
1 P
1
|
|
.
|

\
|


= +

|
|
.
|

\
|


(17)
It is also known that, the local free stream sonic
velocity is given by;

=
P
a
(18)

=
1
2
s
p
P
P
1
2
s p
a
V
2
1
1 P P

(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+ =
From equation (12), the P relationship can be
written as;
And equation (17) can be rewritten as
(19)
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ = = A

1
a
V
2
1
1 P P P P
1
2
s s p
(20)
Equation (20) is the most accurate equation that can
be used to calculate the air speed given the value of
P
d
, the pressure difference.
However, it is not practical to use it in a typical aircraft
operation due to local atmospheric values have been
used. The values for sonic velocity a and air density
varies with the height.
To solve this problem, ICAO has recommended using
a and values within International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) and incorporating relative
atmosphere.
From equation (18), we can rewrite it as follows;
o
o
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
2
o
o
o
2
o
2
a
V
P
P
a
V
a
V
Where; = Atmospheric relative density
o = Atmospheric relative pressure
Subscript o indicates at sea level.
By definition, Equivalent Airspeed, V
e
is given by;
o = V V
e
(22)
(21)
With the above definition, equation (20) becomes
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
o
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

1
1
a
V
2
1
1 P P
1
2
o
e
s d
(23)
Equation (17) is more suited for airspeed calculation
because it uses sea level sonic velocity, a
o
, and
other relative values that can be obtain from
meteorological data.
Almost all airspeed instruments are calibrated in the
laboratory at sea level, i.e. = 1 and o = 1
In this condition, the calculated airspeed is called
the Calibrated Airspeed, V
c
, and equation (23)
becomes;
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

1
a
V
2
1
1 P P
1
2
o
c
s d
(24)
Equation (24) is called Full Law Calibration
Equation of Airspeed Indicator.
It is the most accurate calibration equation for
airspeed indicator.
Due to o = 1 during calibration, a systematic error
exist between V
e
and V
c
as the instrument is used
at different height.

This type of error is called Compressibility Error
or Scale Altitude Error.

This error can be corrected by using "Scale
Altitude Correction Chart".
Equation (24) can be simplified as follows;
expanding the equation using Taylor series
(
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ = 1
a
V
8 a
V
2
1 P P
4
o
c
2
o
c
s d
taken out
2
o
c
a
V
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

and dropping the third or

higher order terms, we obtained,
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
2
o
c
2
c o
2
o
c
s
2
o
c
d
a
V
4
1
1 V
2
1
a
V
4
1
1 P
a
V
2
1
P
Where
o
o
s
a
P
=

If P
s
= P
o
during calibration
(25)
Equation (25) is called Simple Law Calibration
Equation of Airspeed Indicator.
This equation can be used up to 460 kts
Airspeed indicator summary:
V
I

V
i

V
c

V
e

V
P
p

P
s

Pressure system correction
Instrument correction
Scale-Altitude correction
Relative correction
V
I
= Indicator reading
V
i
= Indicated A/S
V
c
= Calibrated A/S
V
e
= Equivalent A/S
V = True A/S
o
=
e
V
V
Mach Number Calculation
a
V
M = By definition,
a ratio of true air speed against local sonic velocity.
From equation 20, the Mach No. is given by;
1 M
2
1
1
P
P
1
2
s
d

+ =

(26)
Equation (26) is the Mach No. calibration equation for
subsonic airspeed. In this equation the mach no.
depends on the ratio of pressure different against static
pressure.
At sonic and supersonic velocity, there exist normal
shock in front of pitot tube and altered P
p

M
2
, P
p2

Pitot tube
M
1
, P
p1

M
1
> 1
M
1
< 1
Pitot tube will measure P
P2
that is much less than P
P1

It can be shown that;
( )
1
2 2 4
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2

+
+ +
=



M
M
M
P
P
s
d
(27)