Primary Sensing Element

(SENSORS)
Prepared by: Engr. Dean Mart S. Ancheta

 This lecture provides an overview of instru ent sensors used in process and auto atic control. !t is useful to anyone studying easure ent syste s and instru entation but it is provided ainly in support of "ontrol Syste Engineering odule.

Overview
On completion of this lecture, you should be able to do the following: E#plain how sensors wor$ theoretically and practically. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of te perature sensors. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of pressure sensors. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of speed transducers. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of flow eters. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of force gauges. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of displace ent gauges. E#plain the basic wor$ing principles of a variety of level %depth& gauges. E#plain in so e detail the theory and use of strain gauges.

PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS / SENSORS

Te perature Pressure Speed 'low rate 'orce Move ent( )elocity and Acceleration

Stress and Strain *evel or Depth Mass or +eight Density Si,e or )olu e Acidity-Al$alinity

Tem erat!re

T"erm#$#! les
o +hen two wires with dissi ilar electrical properties are .oined at both ends and one .unction is ade hot and the other cold( a s all electric current is produced proportional to the difference in the te perature.

Seebeck Effect

o !t is true no atter how the ends are .oined so the cold end ay be .oined at a sensitive illivolt eter. The hot .unction for s the sensor end.

T"erm#$#! les

o Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and re.ected at the cold end. Peltier Effect o Tho pson showed that part of the e. .f. is due to the te perature gradient in the wire as well as the te perature difference between the .unctions. Most ther ocouple etals produce a relationship between the two te peratures and the e. .f as follows. Thompson Effect

and are constants for the type of ther ocouple. The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range. The actual characteristic and suitable operating te peratures depends upon the etals used in the wires. The various types are designated in international and national standards. Typical linear operating ranges are shown for standard types.

T"erm#$#! les
o Ther ocouples co e in several for s. They ay be wires insulated fro each other with plastic or glass fiber aterials. 'or high te perature wor$( the wire pairs are put inside a tube with ineral insulation. 'or industrial uses the sensor co es in a etal enclosure such as stainless steel.

Resistan$e Ty e Sens#rs

These wor$ on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with te perature. !f a constant voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with te perature. The resistivity of the conductor change with te perature. This usually eans the resistance gets bigger as the conductor gets hotter. The following law relates the resistance and te perature.

/ te perature coefficient of resistance / resistance at 0 degrees "elsius

Resistan$e Ty e Sens#rs

o A basic te perature sensor is ade by winding a thin resistance wire into a s all sensor head. The resistance of the wire then represents the te perature. This has an advantage over a ther ocouple in that it is unaffected by the te perature of the gauge end. o The ain type of wire used is P !T"#$%.

o The sensors are usually anufactured to have a resistance of &'' ohms at ( and the value of is ')''*+, to ')''*-'. o A typical operating range is to (.

Resistan$e Ty e Sens#rs

o A special type of resistance sensor is called a T.E/%"STO/) o They are ade fro a s all piece of se iconductor aterial. The aterial is special because the resistance changes a lot for a s all change in te perature and so can be ade into a s all sensor and it costs less than platinu wire. o The te perature range is li ited. They are only used for a typical range of 1 to ( and are co only used in s all hand held ther o eters for every day use.

Sam le Pr#%lems

Sam le Pr#%lems

&i'!i( E) ansi#n an( *a #!r Press!re Sens#rs

o These are ther o eters filled with either a li2uid such as ercury or an evaporating fluid such as used in refrigerators. !n both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are co pletely full. Any rise in te perature produces e#pansion or evaporation of the li2uid so the sensor beco es pressuri,ed. The pressure is related to the te perature and it ay be indicated on a si ple pressure gauge.

+ays and eans e#ist to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The ove ent ay also directly operate a ther ostat. These instru ents are robust and used over a wide range. They can be fitted with electric switches to set off alar s.

+imetalli$ Ty es
o 3sed to convert a te perature change into echanical displace ent. The strip consists of two strips of different etals which e#pand at different rates as they are heated( usually steel and copper( or in so e cases steel and brass. o The strips are .oined by ri0eting, bra1ing or welding) together throughout their length o The different e#pansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated( and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial te perature. The etal with the higher coefficient of thermal e2pansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled.

,lass T"erm#meter

o The ordinary glass ther o eter is also a co plete syste . Again the bulb is the sensor but the colu n of li2uid and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot te peratures and colored alcohol for cold te peratures.

o The proble s with glass ther o eters are that they are o 4rittle o Mercury solidifies at (. o Alcohol boils at around ( . o Accurate anufacture is needed and this a$e a$es accurate ones e#pensive.

o !t is easy for people to

ista$es reading the .

Press!re

 Pressure sensors either con0ert the pressure into mechanical mo0ement or into an electrical output. "o plete gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate the on a dial or scale. Mechanical ele ents:
o 4ourdon Tube. o Spring and Piston. o 4ellows and capsules. o Diaphrag .

ove ent is produced with the following

+#!r(#n T!%e
The 3ourdon Tube is a nonli2uid pressure device. easure ent A typical 4ourdon tube contains a cur0ed tube that is open to e#ternal pressure input on one end and is coupled echanically to an indicating needle on the other end. The ove ent is usually coupled to a needle on a dial to a$e a co plete gauge. !t can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air no,,le to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an electric signal. This type can be used for easuring pressure difference.

+#!r(#n T!%e

Pist#n Ty e
The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The position of the piston is directly related to the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This type is usually used in hydraulics where the ability to withstand shoc$( vibration and sudden pressure changes is needed %shoc$ proof gauge&. The piston ove ent ay be connected to a secondary device to convert ove ent into an electrical signal.

Ca s!les an( +ell#ws

A bellows is ade of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures ade fro thin etal plate. +hen pressuri,ed the bellows e2pand and produce mechanical mo0ement. !f the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer container( then the ove ent is proportional to the difference between the pressure on the inside and outside. 4ellows and single capsules are used in easuring s all pressures. any instru ents. They are very useful for

Dia "ragms
These are si ilar in principle to the capsule but the diaphrag usually very thin and perhaps ade of rubber. is The diaphrag e2pands when 0ery small pressures are applied. The ove ent is trans itted to a pointer on a dial through a fine echanical lin$age.

Ele$tri$al Press!re Sens#rs

There are various ways of converting the echanical ove ent of the preceding types into an electric signal. The following are types that directly produce an electric signal.
o Strain 5auge types. o Pie,o electric types. o 6ther electric effects.

Ele$tri$al Press!re Sens#rs

Strain 5auge Types o Strain gauges are s all ele ents that are fi#ed to a surface that is strained. o The change in length of the ele ent produces changes in the electrical resistance. This is processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure transducer would contain a etal diaphrag which bends under pressure.

Ele$tri$al Press!re Sens#rs

Pie,o Electric Types
o The ele ent used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric charge on its surface when it is mechanically stressed) The electric charge ay be converted into voltage. o This principle is used in the pic$ up crystal of a record player( in icrophones and even to generate a spar$ in a gas ignitor. +hen placed inside a pressure transducer( the pressure is converted into an electric signal.

6ther Electric Effects

o o 6ther electric effects co only used in transducers are (!P!("T"4E and "#5$(T"4E. !n these cases( the pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic co ponent in the transducer. 4oth these effects are co only used in an electronic oscillator and one way they ay be used is to change the fre2uency of the oscillation. The fre2uency ay be converted into a voltage representing the pressure.

S ee(

 Speed transducers are widely used for easuring the output speed of a rotating ob.ect. There are any types using different principles and ost of the produce an electrical output.

O ti$al Ty es
These use a light bea and a light sensitive cell. The bea is either reflected or interrupted so that pulses are produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fi#ed ti e and the speed obtained. Electronic processing is re2uired to ti e the pulses and turn the result into an analogue or digital signal.

Magneti$ Pi$- U s
These use an inductive coil placed near to the rotating body. A s all agnet on the body generates a pulse every ti e it passes the coil. !f the body is ade of ferrous aterial( it will wor$ without a agnet. A discontinuity in the surface such as a notch will cause a change in the agnetic field and generate a pulse. The pulses ust be processed to produce an analogue or digital output.

Ta$"#meters
There are two types( A.". and D.". The A.". type generates a sinusoidal output. The fre2uency of the voltage represents the speed of rotation. The fre2uency ust be counted and processed. The D.". type generates a voltage directly proportional to the speed. 4oth types ust be coupled to the rotating body. )ery often the tacho eter is built into electric otors to easure their speed.

.l#w Rate

 There are any hundreds of types of flow depending on the a$e and application. They classified roughly as follows.
o Positive Displace ent Types o !nferential Types o )ariable Area Types o Differential Pressure Types

eters ay be

P#sitive Dis la$ement Ty e

These types have a echanical ele ent that a$es the shaft of the rotate once for an e#act $nown 2uantity of fluid. eter The 2uantity of fluid hence depends on the nu ber of revolutions of the eter shaft And the flow rate depends upon the speed of rotation. 4oth the revolutions and speed ay be easured with electronic devices. So e of the ost co on listed below.
o 7otary Piston Type o )ane Type. o *obe Type 6r Meshing 7otor. o 7eciprocating Piston Type. o 'luted Spiral 5ear.

echanical or

In/erential Ty e
The flow of the fluid is inferred fro so e effect produced by the flow. 3sually this is a rotor which is ade to spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed echanically or electronically. The ain types are :
o Turbine 7otor Types o 7otary Shunt Types o 7otating )ane Types o 8elical Turbine Types

Turbine /otor
o The turbine type shown has an a#ial rotor which is ade to spin by the fluid and the speed represents the flow rate. This ay be sensed electrically by coupling the shaft to a s all electric tacho eter. 6ften this consists of a agnetic slug on the rotor which generates a pulse of electricity each ti e it passes the sensor.

 /otating 4ane:
o The .et of fluid spins around the rotating vane and the speed of the rotor is easured echanically or electronically.

*aria%le Area
There are two
o Tapered Plug Type.

ain types of this

eter

o 'loat Type %7ota eter&

6loat Type o The float is inside a tapered tube. o The fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the float. The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float upwards. o 4ecause the tube is tapered( the restriction is decreased as the float oves up. Eventually a level is reached where the restriction is .ust right to produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of the float. The level of the float indicates the flow rate. !f the flow changes the float oves up or down to find a new balance position.

o +hen dangerous fluids are used( protection is needed against the tube fracturing. o The tube ay be ade of a non1 agnetic etal. The float has a agnet on it. As it oves up and down( the agnet oves a follower and pointer on the outside. The position of the float ay be easured electrically by building a ove ent transducer into the float.

Tapered Plug
o !n this eter( a tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or orifice. A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted as it passes through the gap and a force is produced which oves the plug. o 4ecause it is tapered the restriction changes and the plug ta$es up a position where the pressure force .ust balances the spring force. o The ove ent of the plug is trans itted with a on the outside. agnet to an indicator

Di//erential Press!re .l#w

These are a range of differential pressure.
o 6rifice Meters. o )enturi Meters o 9o,,le Meters o Pitot Tubes.

eters that convert flow rate into a

 The wor$ing principle for all these is that so ething a$es the velocity of the fluid change and this produces a change in the pressure so that a difference / is created. !t can be shown for all these eters that the volu e flow rate : is related to by the following for ula.

; is the

eter constant

Sam le Pr#%lem

.#r$e

 The

ain types of force sensors are

o Mechanical Types. o 8ydraulic Types. o Electrical Strain 5auge Types.

Me$"ani$al Ty es
Mechanical types are usually co plete easuring syste s involving so e for of spring such as in a si ple spring balance or bathroo scale. !t is a basic echanical principle that the deflection of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force so if the ove ent is shown on a scale( the scale represents force.

0y(ra!li$ Ty es
8ydraulic types are often referred to as hydraulic load cells. The cell is a capsule filled with li2uid. +hen the capsule is s2uee,ed( the li2uid beco es pressuri,ed. The pressure represents the force and ay be indicated with a calibrated pressure gauge. The capsule is often a short cylinder with a piston and the pressure produced is given by P / '-A where ' is the force and A the piston area.

Strain ,a!ge Ty es
A typical load cell consists of a etal cylinder with strain gauges fi#ed to it. +hen the cylinder is stretched or co pressed( the strain gauges convert the force into a change in resistance and hence voltage. Since the ele ents re2uire a supply voltage( the cell usually has < wires( two for the supply and two for the output.

P#siti#n

Position sensors are essential ele ents in the control of actuators. The position of both linear and rotary actuators is needed in robotic type echanis s. There are three principle types.
o 7esistive o 6ptical o !nductive

Resistive Ty es
A potentio eter is a variable electrical resistance. A length of resistance aterial has a voltage applied over its ends. A slider oves along it %either linear or rotary& and pic$s off the voltage at its position or angle. The trac$s ay be ade fro carbon ( resistance wire or pie,o resistive aterial. The latter is the best because it gives a good analogue output. The wire wound type produces s all step changes in the output depending on how fine the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the trac$.

O ti$al Ty es
6ptical types are ainly used for producing digital outputs. A co on e#a ple is found on achine tools where they easure the position of the wor$ table and display it in digits on the gauge head. Digital icro eters and verniers also use this idea. The basic principle is as follows. *ight is e itted through a transparent strip or disc onto a photo electric cell. 6ften reflected light is used as shown. The strip or disc has very fine lines engraved on it which interrupt the bea . The nu ber of interruptions are counted electronically and this represents the position or angle. This is very uch over si plified and you should refer to ore advanced te#t to find out how very accurate easure ents are obtained and also the direction of ove ent.

In(!$tive Ty es
The ost co on of these is the inear 4ariable 5ifferential transformer or 45T. The transfor er is ade with one pri ary coil and two secondary coils( one placed above and the other below the pri ary. The coils are for ed into a long narrow hollow tube. A magnetic core slides in the tube and is attached to the echanis being onitored with a non agnetic ste brass&. A constant alternating voltage is applied to the pri ary coil. This induces a voltage in both secondary coils. %e.g. +hen the core is e#actly in the iddle( e2ual voltages are induced and when connected as shown( they cancel each other out. +hen the core oves( the voltage in one secondary coil grows but reduces in the other. The result is an output voltage which represents the position of the core and hence the echanis to which it is attached. The output voltage is usually converted into D.". +ith suitable electronic e2uip ent for phase detection( it is possible to detect which direction the core oves and to switch the D" voltage fro plus to inus as the core passes the center position. These can be very accurate and are widely used for gauging the di ensions of achined co ponents.

In(!$tive Ty es

De t" ,a!ges

Depth gauges easure the depth of li2uids and powder in tan$s. They use a variety of principles and produce outputs in electrical and pneu atic for s. The type to use depends on the substance in the tan$. 8ere are a few.

Ultras#ni$ &evel ,a!ge

The ultrasonic syste reflects sound waves fro the surface and deter ines the depth fro the ti e ta$en to receive the reflected sound.

Ele$tr#ni$ &evel ,a!ge

The electronic version uses a variety of electrical affects including conduction of the fluid and capacitance.

Air Press!re System

The pneu atic version bubbles air through the li2uid and the pressure of the air is related to the depth.

Press!re ,a!ge System

A si ple pressure gauge attached to a tan$ is also indicates the depth since depth is proportional to pressure.

Strain ,a!ges

 Strain gauges are used in any instru ents that produce echanical strain because of the affect being easured. They are used to easure the strain in a structure being stretched or co pressed. The strain gauge ele ent is a very thin wire that is for ed into the shape shown. This produces a long wire all in one direction but on a s all surface area. The ele ent is often for ed by etching a thin foil on a plastic bac$ing. The co pleted ele ent is then glued to the surface of the aterial or co ponent that will be strained. The a#is of the strain gauge is aligned with the direction of the strain. +hen the co ponent is stretched or co pressed( the length of the resistance wire is changed. This produces a corresponding change in the electrical resistance.

 *et the length of the gauge be * and the change in length be.
The echanical strain *et the resistance of the gauge be 7 %typically =>0 oh s& and the change in resistance be . The electrical strain. The electrical and echanical strain are directly proportional and the constant relating the is called the gauge factor %typically >&. 5auge 'actor / Electrical Strain-Mechanical strain / - / # *& # &

Sam le Pr#%lem

Strain ,a!ge Arrangements

A strain gauge is of little use unless we can convert the change in resistance into a voltage. This is best done with a +heatstone bridge. !f only one active gauge is used( this would be 7= or 7>. 7= and 7> ust be e2ual( so ust 7? and 7<. !n this case( the voltage at points = and > are e2ual to )s-> and so the output )o is ,ero. !n order to ensure this( the balancing resistor 74 is ad.usted to a$e the output ,ero with no strain applied to the gauge. Suppose that 7= is the active gauge. !f the bridge is balanced then the voltage at points = and > is half the supply voltage. )= / )> / )s->

 +hen 7= changes its resistance by the voltage at point = beco es:

o )s7-%>7 @ & %using ratio of resistances&

The output beco es:

o )o/ )> 1 )= / )s-> 1 )s7 -%>7 @ & o )o/ )s -A%<7 @ > &B

Dividing top and botto

o )o/ )s %-7&-A< @ > -7B

by 7 we get:

The gauge factor is defined as:

o 5 / electrical strain- echanical strain o 5 / %-7&- so %-7& / 5

Substituting( we get:
o )o/ )s 5 -A< @ >5 B

6ther 'or ulas:

Sam le Pr#%lem

 :ui, > 9e#t Meeting E#a 9e#t Meeting