Introduction to Instrument Functions

Instrument symbols define what variable shall be measured and what action is required from the instrument. 1. First letter defines what variable is to be measured. 2. The next letters define either a function or a modifier regardless of the variable to be measured and regardless of the way it shall be realized. Main functions: a- Indicating c- Switching e- Controlling g- Transmitting b- Recording d- Alarming f- Mathematical functions h- Measuring

Main modifiers: L (Low), H (High), LL (very low), HH (very high).

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

a) Indication
Is the process in which the instrument, (indicator), satisfies the operator needs to know about some process variables in one of two ways: the qualitative way or the quantitative way.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

b) Recording
Usually operators write the values read on indicators in log books once per hour. To avoid the drawbacks of losing data, or to keep information for further study and/or evaluation, important process variables are automatically recorded by various types of recorders.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Recording (contd)
1. Continuous Line Recorders In this type of recorders a pen is assigned to the pointer of each required process variable, this pen is marking on a moving chart.
100 % Time Scale Time Scale

100 %

Process Variable Scale

Process Variable Scale

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Recording (contd)
2. Dotted Line Recorders These are time shared equipment

Measured variables

Rotary switch

Measuring system

Printing mechanism

Chart paper

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

c) Switching
B SPST Switch A Position (2) A Position (1) B

A SPDT Switch B

A B C

Position (2)

Position (1)

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Switching (contd)
A2 A1 B1 B2

DPDT Switch

C2

C1

DPST Switch

B2

B1

A2

A1

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Switching (contd)
A B

Mercury Switch
Glass tube

Mercury drop

C B

C A

Tip

Proximity Switch

(Low current) Metallic body

High frequency current

(High current)

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Switching (contd)
Examples 1) 2 port /2 position valve
a a

2) 3 port / 2 position valve

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Switching (contd)
c b

3) 4 port and 3 position valve

d a

Example 3/2 valve with pressure / spring actuators

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

d) Alarming
Alarms are needed to alert the operator in case of one or more process variable value crosses a predefined threshold value, (increased above a high limit or decreased below a low limit), or a machine motor changes its status, (motor stops or motor starts). Alarms are divided into two groups; Normal Alarms which do not cause shutdown of plant and stop the operation, and Shut down Alarms which cause shut down and stop the operation.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Alarming (contd)
Examples of alarm sequences 1. Normal alarm sequence Condition Normal Alert Acknowledge Return to normal Return to normal before acknowledge Acknowledge 2. Motor alarm sequence Condition Motor starts Acknowledge Motor stops Acknowledge Lamp flashing on flashing off horn on off on off Lamp off flashing on off flashing off horn off on off off on off

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

e) Controlling
1. Compare the requirements to the existing values/status and find the difference. 2. Use this difference and a pre-built in instructions to do certain mathematical/logical operations. 3. Feed the results of these mathematical logical operations to manipulating devices (not part of the controller).

4. Manipulating devices changes the manipulated variables of the process to make the process tend to have the controlled variable value / status equal to the required value/status.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Controlling (contd)
Common nomenclature: 1. The process variable values required are commonly called set points. The difference between the set point and the existing value is commonly called error. The pre-built in instruction are called control algorithm or control logic. The result of mathematical/logical operation of the controller is called controller output. The manipulating devices is called final control element.

2.
3. 4. 5.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

Controlling (contd)
Final control element The controller

(r)

(y)

Control algorithm/logic

Manipulating device

(z)

Disturbance Manipulated

Process Controlled Variable Variable

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

f) Mathematical Units
In many cases some mathematical treatment of signals are needed before indicating, recording or using them in control. The square root extraction is one of the most commonly used operations in flow measurements. Multiplying and division is also used in state correcting. Furthermore, adding and subtracting is used for biasing and correction.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

g) Transmitting
When it is necessary to concentrate all data in one place either to a local panel or control room, for indicating, recording or any other type of processing. The method adopted to do this is to transfer the measured data into standard signals and send them via tubes (in pneumatic systems) or cables (in electric systems) to control or local panels, there they can be processed and scaled back to original values, this operation is done by a transmitter at one end by a receiver at the other end.

Introduction to Instrument Functions (contd)

h) Measurement
The measurement of the process variables is the main function of instruments. Any instrument connected to process directly contains a measuring system for the process variable denoted in its tag number, other instruments not connected to the process directly contain one or more signal measuring system and scaling factors.

Instruments in Hazardous Areas

Ignition hazards occur when the following three elements co-exist:
1. 2. 3. Flammable material (gas / liquid / dust) Air or oxygen or other oxidant support of combustion Starting source of energy

Instruments in Hazardous Areas (contd)

Several techniques are used to prevent explosions when flammable material is present in the atmosphere, each of these techniques separates one of the three elements mentioned above from the other two elements, which cannot cause explosion to happen alone.

Instruments in Hazardous Areas (contd)

The following are the techniques used to prevent explosions:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Oil immersion, and designated Ex "o" Pressurization, and designated Ex "p" Powder filling, and designated Ex "q" Flame proof, and designated Ex "d" Increased safety, and designated Ex "e" Intrinsic safety, and designated Ex "i" Non incendive, and designated Ex "n" Encapsulation, and designated Ex "m" Special, and designated Ex "s"

Instruments in Hazardous Areas (contd)

Areas are grouped according to the time probability of hazardous gas existence Div 1 and Div2 in America and zone 0 to zone 2 in Europe where zone and Div2 are least probability for gas existence. Gases are grouped according to the energy they need to start ignition (IIA to IIC) where IIC is the lowest energy needed. Apparatus are classified according to the maximum temperature that can occur on its outer surface due to faults (T1 to T6) where accordingly T6 is the lowest.

Safety Valves and other Reliefing Devices

These reliefing devices are the last physical resource in the (ILOPPA), Independent Levels of Plant Protection Arrangement, they open and relief process to flare. They can be replaceable like rupture discs, or reusable like safety relief valves, breathing valves etc.
They should be simple mechanical devices with no system to control them; they only depend on mechanical properties of materials.

Safety Valves and other Reliefing Devices (contd)

Process engineers are responsible of sizing these devices and choosing their type, instrumentation engineers are responsible only of requisioning them, testing and calibration if required.