Transmitters whether they are pressure, temperature, level or flow transmitters, are used when local indication alone

does not suffice and when remote indication, logging or controlling is required. They can be either pneumatic or electronic type and work amongst other principles, mostly on force balance principle. Force exerted on the force beam by the pressure acting on the high pressure (HP) or low pressure (LP) side is balanced by the change in the output acting on the other side of the fulcrum point and the flapper-nozzle assembly assumes its original position. There are also other types of transmitters like, capacitance, ultrasonic, resistance network reed switches type, with a bellow /capsule / diaphragm / bourdon as primary elements and strain gauge, LVDT, etc., as secondary elements.

All the pressure measurements are basically differential pressure measurements and when measured against a stable reference like atmospheric pressure, absolute vacuum, etc., are known as pressure measurements. Let us now try to understand a few basic terms which we come across often Range : The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or transmitted and expressed by stating the Lower and Upper Range Limits. Process range : 0 100% (level), 0100 m3/hr (Flow), 0-100C, etc., Signal range : 0-4mWC, 0-100mmWC, 100-138.5, etc., Output range: 3-15 psi, 4-20 mA, 0-10 Vdc, etc., Span : Span is the algebraic difference between the lower and upper range limits.

Zero Suppression & Zero elevation :

Zero suppression is carried out when the transmitter output is higher than zero for the desired datum level in a tank.

Zero elevation is carried out when the transmitter output is lower than zero for the desired datum level in a tank and in a wet leg level system, when P = 0 means, the maximum level (which otherwise would mean the minimum level) and the output needs to be elevated to maximum.
Standard Output Signals :

Pneumatic : 3-15 psi & 0.2 to 1 kg/cm2 Electrical : 4-20 mA, 0-10 Vdc, 1-5 Vdc, 0-20 mA, 0-5 Vdc
Why 3-15 psi and 4-20mA? Live zero & Linear region Why current transmission? Noise immunity, no drops, 2 wire

The physical distance between the baffle and the nozzle alters the resistance of air flow through the nozzle. This in turn affects the air pressure built up inside the nozzle (called the nozzle backpressure). A few thousandths of an inch of motion is enough to drive the pneumatic output between its saturation limits. Orifice dia. < nozzle dia. and hence, the back pressure build up.

Force balance DPT (Pneumatic)

Differential pressure is sensed by a liquid-filled diaphragm capsule, which transmits force to a force bar. If the force bar moves out of position due to this applied force, a highly sensitive flapper & nozzle mechanism senses it and causes a pneumatic amplifier/relay to send a different amount of air pressure to a bellows unit. The bellows presses against the range bar which pivots to counter-act the initial motion of the force bar. When the system returns to equilibrium, the air pressure inside the bellows will be a direct, linear representation of the process fluid pressure applied.

Force balance DPT (Electronic)

Differential pressure is sensed by the same type of liquid-filled diaphragm capsule, which transmits force to the force bar. If the force bar moves out of position due to this applied force, a highly sensitive electromagnetic sensor detects 4-20 mA it and causes an electronic amplifier to send a different amount of electric current to a force coil. The force coil presses against the range bar which pivots to counteract the initial motion of the force bar. When the system returns to equilibrium, the current through the force coil will be a direct, linear representation of the process fluid pressure applied to the diaphragm capsule.

Merits & Demerits of Force Balance type Transmitters : + Good linearity + Constrained sensing element motion + Does not rely on spring characteristic for balancing (<< hysteresis) + Less susceptible to errors due to metal fatigue or degradation - Bulky - Difficult to implement intrinsic safety as more energy required - External vibrations tend to induce noise in the output signal Valve Manifold : Three-valve manifolds are more commonly manufactured as monolithic devices: the three valves cast together into one block of metal, attaching to the pressure transmitter by way of a flanged face with O-ring seals. Bleed valves are most commonly found as separate devices threaded into one or more of the ports on the transmitters diaphragm chambers. The photograph shows a three-valve manifold bolted to a differential pressure transmitter.

In normal operation, the two block valves are left open to allow process fluid pressure to reach the transmitter. The equalizing valve is left tightly shut so no fluid can pass between the high and low pressure sides. To isolate the transmitter from the process for maintenance, one must first close the block valves, then open the equalizing valve to ensure the transmitter sees no differential pressure. The bleed valve is opened at the very last step to relieve pent-up fluid pressure within the manifold and transmitter chambers

Bleed or vent fittings

Before removing a pressure transmitter from live service, one must bleed or vent the stored fluid pressure to atmosphere in order to achieve a zero energy state prior to disconnecting the transmitter from the impulse lines. Water traps and pigtail siphons : High temperature and pressure steam can cause damage to the sensing element of a transmitter if directly connected. A simple yet effective solution to this problem is to intentionally create a low spot in the impulse line where condensed steam (water) will accumulate and act as a liquid barrier to prevent hot steam from reaching the pressure instrument.

Transmitter Specifications : Span & Range limits, Zero adjustment limits Supply & load requirements, electrical connection Output voltage / current signal range Suppression / Elevation limits Housing , wetted & non-wetted parts material specifications Ingress Protection Process connections, Service fluid compatibility Installation type (vertical / horizontal, bottom/top process connection, flange type, etc., Total accuracy, square root output accuracy Ambient temp., static pressure, overpressure, power supply, vibration, mounting position, etc., effects Type of diagnostics, availability of integral indicator, failure alarm Response time, damping time constant, etc., EMC, Safety requirement (SIL), Communication standards Ambient limits ( temperature, humidity, etc.,)

Transmitter checking / calibration : Despite carrying out pre dispatch inspection a transmitter (or for that matter, any instrument / equipment) brought from stores needs to be once again checked prior to installation at site. Visual inspection : For any damages during transit. Static pressure test : Even though a DP transmitters range shall be as low as say, 0-100 mmWC or so, its HP & LP lines are subjected to much higher pressure. Hence, static pressure test assumes significance. Calibration : Prior to carrying out any adjustment, zero & span as found may be noted down and then required adjustment shall be carried out as this would let us know if theres any drift. % error and % hysteresis shall be calculated after calibration and shall be verified if within the allowable limits.