Lesson Outcomes:

After todays lecture, students are expected to: Analyze about type of chips produced, cutting tools and its geometry, tool life (wear and failure), machinability of various materials and cutting tool materials
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Fundamentals of Machining

Types of chips

Can be classified into 4 main types;

i. ii. iii. iv. Continuous Built up edge Serrated or segmented Discontinuous

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Continuous chips
Deformation takes place along primary shear

zone / narrow shear zone. Characteristics of continuous chips:

Operation has to be stopped to clear away the

Formed at high rake angles and/or high cutting speeds. Good surface finish. Also occurs in machining soft metals at low speeds and low rake angles. Continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly in automated machine tools, where tend to get tangled around the tool.

chips or using chip breakers

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Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear zone; (b) continuous chip with secondary shear zone at the cip-tool interface;
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Built-up edges chips

BUE consists of layers of material from the workpiece

that are gradually deposited on the tool. BUE then becomes unstable and eventually breaks up BUE material is carried away on the tool side of the chip, the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece surface. BUE results in poor surface finish Reduced by;
decreasing the depth of cut increasing the rake angle Using sharp tool Using an effective cutting fluid

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Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (c) built-up edge; Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
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Built-up Edge

(b)

(c)

(a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the cutting zone (material, 3115 steel). Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk metal of the workpiece. (b) Surface finish produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
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Serrated Chips
Semi continuous chips with zones low

and high shear strain. Feature likes saw-tooth Mostly on metals with low thermal conductivity & strength exhibit this behaviour

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Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip, Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
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Discontinuous chips
Discontinuous chips consist of segments that

may be firmly or loosely attached to each other These chips occur when machining hard brittle materials such as cast iron. Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before any tangible plastic flow occurs Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials at low rake angles (large depths of cut).
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Chips Produced in Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (e) discontinuous chip. Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
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Chip Breakers
Long continuous chip are undesirable
Chip breaker is a piece of metal

clamped to the rake surface of the tool which bends the chip and breaks it In turning process, chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry, thereby controlling the chip flow
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Chip Breaker
(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers. Most cutting toold used now are inserts with built-in chip breaker features.

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Cutting Tools and Its Geometry

A typical single-point cutting tool is used in

turning operation. Single-point Tool geometry

Back rake angle (ab) Side rake angle (as) End relief angle (ERA) Side relief angle (SRA) Side cutting edge angle (SCEA) Nose radius End cutting edge angle(ECEA)

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Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert

(a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced largely with (b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
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Cutting Tools and Its Geometry (cont.)

ECEA

Single-point Tool geometry

Nose radius(NR)

Back rake angle (ab) Side rake angle (as) End relief angle (ERA) Side relief angle (SRA) Side cutting edge angle (SCEA) Nose radius End cutting edge angle(ECEA)

SCEA

as

ab

ERA SRA

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Tool Life: Wear and Failure

1. Flank wear :It occurs on the relief face

of the tool and the side relief angle. 2. Crater wear: It occurs on the rake face of the tool. 3. Chipping :Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the tool.
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Wear Patterns on Tools

Types of wear on a turning tool: a. flank wear; b. crater wear; c. chipped cutting edge; d. thermal cracking on rake face; e. built-up edge; f. catastrophic failure. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
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Cutting Tool Interface and Chip

Interface of a cutting tool (right) and chip (left) in machining plain-carbon steel. The discoloration of the tool indicates the presence of high temperatures. Source: Courtesy of P. K. Wright.

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Types of Wear seen in Cutting Tools

(a) Schematic illustration of types of wear observed on various cutting tools. (b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters influence these wear and failure patterns. Source: Courtesy of V. C. Venkatesh.
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Effect of Workpiece Hardness and Microstructure on Tool Life

Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life in turning ductile cast iron. Note the rapid decrease in tool life (approaching zero) as the cutting speed increases.
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Tool-life Curves
Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equation and C is the cutting speed at T = 1 min, ranging from about 200 to 10,000 ft./min in this figure.

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Cutting-tool Materials
Cutting tool is subjected to; High temperatures Contact stresses Sliding along the tool-chip interface Characteristics of cutting tool; Hardness (Elevated temperatures) Toughness (Impact forces on tool in interrupted operation) Wear resistance (tool life to be considered) Chemical stability / inertness (avoiding adverse reactions)
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Cutting-tool Materials (cont.)

Cutting tool materials

Carbon & medium alloy steels High speed steels Cast-cobalt alloys Carbides Coated tools Alumina-based ceramics Cubic boron nitride Silicon-nitride-base ceramics Diamond Whisker-reinforced materials
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Hardness of Cutting Tool Materials as a Function of Temperature

The hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature (hot hardness). The wide range in each group of materials is due to the variety of tool compositions and treatments available for that group.
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General Properties of Tool Materials

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General Characteristics of Cutting-Tool Materials

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Ranges of Mechanical Properties for Groups of Tool Materials

Ranges of mechanical properties for various groups of tool materials.

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Inserts
Individual cutting tool with several

cutting points Clamped or brazed on tool shanks with locking mechanisms Inserts available in various shapesSquare, Triangle, Diamond and round Strength depends on the shape
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Inserts and Toolholders

Typical carbide inserts with various shapes and chipbreaker features: Round inserts are also available, as can be seen in Figs. 22.3c and 22.4. The holes in the inserts are standardized for interchangeability in toolholders. Source: Courtesy of Kyocera Engineered Ceramics, Inc.

Methods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping and (b) wing lockpins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted with threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws. Source: Courtesy of Valenite.
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Insert Edge Properties

Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping of inserts with various shapes. Strength refers to the cutting edge indicated by the included angles. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
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Cutting Fluids
Refers to Lubricants & Coolants Used in machining as well as abrasive

machining processes Purpose:

Reduces friction & wear Reduce forces and energy consumption Cools the cutting zone Wash away the chips Protect Machined surfaces from environmental corrosion
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Proper Methods of Applying Cutting Fluids

Schematic illustration of the proper methods of applying cutting fluids (flooding) in various machining operations: (a) turning, (b) milling, (c) thread grinding, and (d) drilling.
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Thats all for today.. Any questions??

IQ + EQ + SQ = TQ
Thank You for coming and see you again..