Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation
The modulating signal changes the freq.
f
c
of the carrier signal
The bandwidth for FM is high
It is approx. 10x the signal frequency

The process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in
accordance with the AF signal.
Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation
Figure 5.19 FM band allocation
FREQUENCY MODULATION
A sinusoidal carrier signal is given as :
| | ) ( sin t E e
c c c
u =
where,
e
c
= Instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal
E
c
= Amplitude of the carrier signal

c
(t) = Total phase angle of the carrier signal at a time
instant, t
With reference to the carrier signal given by above Eq ,
assume that:

c
= Angular frequency of the carrier signal
That is,

c
=2f
c

where f
c
= frequency of the carrier signal.

INTRODUCTION
1
In a sinusoidal wave, the frequency is defined as the rate
of change of the total phase angle, , with respect to time.
In other words, the angular frequency is the time derivative of
the total phase angle of the sinusoidal wave. Therefore:

dt
t d
c
c
) ( u
e =
Integrating both sides of this Eq , we get :
) (
0
t dt
c
t
c
u e =
}
0
) ( u e u + = t t
c c
or
c
e
) (t
c
u
2
3
In Eq , is the constant of integration and is known as the initial
phase angle of the carrier signal. Substituting this we get:

| |
0
sin u e + = t E e
c c c
this can also be rewritten as:
( )
0
2 sin u t + = t f E e
c c c
0
u
4
Modulation of this wave carrier is called as the angle modulation.
I t can be performed in two ways
Phase
freq.
Total phase angle
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Defn & Phy Appearance
Carrier freq is no more constant
Modulating sig is hidden in the varn of the freq of the carrier
Freq
dev
curve
EQ OF FM WAVE
First step in designing a sys is to prepare its mathematical model.
For sake of simplicity of math treatment of FM sig , modulating
sig is taken as pure cosine wave.
t V v
t V v
c c c
m m m
e
e
sin
cos
=
=
The initial phases of both mod and carrier sig remain constant
through out the operation and do not take part in the modulation
process.
In FM the carrier freq does not remain constant after modulation
but varies in proportion to the instantaneous amplitudes of the
modulating sig. Amp and phase of the carrier remain constant
after modulation
5
Therefore eq of FM can be written as
i c
V v u = sin
dt
d
i
i
u
= e
}
= u
t
i i
dt
0
e
Since the instantaneous angular freq of the FM sig is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal and hence the expression
can be written as
m f c i
v k + =e e
where is constant of proportionality.
f
k
6
7
Substituting this we get
t V k
m m f c i
e e e cos + =
| |dt t V k
t
m m f c i
}
+ = u
0
cose e
t
V
k t
m
m
m
f c i
e
e
e sin + = u
t
V
k t
m
m
m
f c i
e
e
e sin + = u
8
Final exp of FM wave will be
(

+ = t
V
k t V v
m
m
m
f c c
e
e
e sin sin
9
FREQ DEVIATION
t V k
m m f c i
e e e cos + =
This eq gives the instantaneous angular freq of an FM carrier.
t
V k
f f
m
m f
c i
e
t
cos
2
+ =
As can be seen from the instantaneous freq of a modulated
carrier is directly proportional to the modulating sig and
varies in accordance with because and others are
constant. Therefore freq deviation in an unmodulated carrier
freq depends upon the factor
t
m
e cos
c
f
c
f
t
V k
m
m f
e
t
cos
2
10
11
This in turn depends on the value of at any instant of
time. The freq deviation is defined as
t 2
m f
d
V k
f =
This is the max freq deviation related to the maximum or
peak amplitude of the modulation signal. Substituting this eq
we get
t f f f
m d c i
e cos + =
Instantaneous freq now depends on the actual value of
which now oscillates bet +1 and 1.
t
m
e cos
t
m
e cos
These extreme limits of set the max and min values
of instantaneous freq of a modulated sig.The limiting freq of an
FM wave are obtained as
t
m
e cos
1 cos ;
1 cos ;
(min)
(max)
= =
+ = + =
t when f f f
t when f f f
m d c i
m d c i
e
e
Where
1 cos ,
2
= = t when
V k
f
m
m f
d
e
t
The max freq deviation is positive when positive peak amp of the
modulating signal occurs and it is negative when the modulating sig
reaches its negative peak. The total change in the carrier freq after
modulation , therefore is from to and is and this is
called carrier swing .
d
f +
d
f
d
f 2
12
13
14
MODULATION INDEX
The modulation index is defined for FM. Substituting value of freq
deviation in the expression of an FM wave we get:
(

+ = t
f
f
t f E e
m
m
d
c c
e t sin 2 sin
The ratio of the frequency deviation, f
d
and the frequency of the
modulating signal, f
m
in this eq is known as the modulation index
of FM wave. This is designated as m
f
Thus:
m
d
f
f
f
m =
It should be noted from this eq 16 that the modulation index of an
FM wave is inversely proportional to f
m
. Thus, the higher the
modulating frequency, the lower the modulation index. Similarly,
the lower the modulating frequency, the higher the modulation
index. From this Eq 16, the frequency deviation can also be
written as:
15
16
m f d
f m f =
| | t m t f E e
m f c c
e t sin 2 sin + =
Therefore eq 15 can also be rewritten using this eq 16
The modulation index plays a very imp role in deciding
BW of the FM sys.
17
DEVIATION RATIO

Deviation Ratio, D
f
= Maximum permissible frequency deviation
Highest modulating frequency

W
f
D
f
A
=
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AN FM SYSTEM
Final expression of FM Signal is
| | t sin m t sin E e
m f c c
e + e =
Substituting E
c
=1 in this eq we get
| | t m t e
m f c
e e sin sin + =
Expanding the Eq:
) t sin m sin( t cos ) t sin m cos( t sin e
m f c m f c
e e + e e =
Constituent I
Constituent II
18
19
20
B A B A B A sin cos cos sin ) sin( + = +
Constituent I =
) sin cos( sin t m t
m f c
e e
Constituent II =
) t sin m sin( t cos
m f c
e e
( ) ( ) ( ) ... 4 cos ) ( 2 2 cos 2 sin cos
4 2
+ e + e + = e t m J t m J m J t m
m f m f f o m f
( ) ..... 2 cos 2
2
+ + t n m J
m f n
e
Consider the factor, cos (m
f
sin
m
t) of constituent I. This factor can
be expanded using the Fourier series:
Similarly, consider the factor, sin (m
f
sin
m
t) of constituent II.
This factor can be expanded using the Fourier series:
( ) ( ) ... 3 sin ) ( 2 sin 2 sin sin
3 1
+ e + e = e t m J t m J t m
m f m f m f
( ) ..... ) 1 2 sin( 2
1 2
+ e +

t n m J
m f n
23
24
21
22
Substituting Eq in Eq we get
Constituent I=
( ) ( )
( )
(
(

+ +
+ + +
..... 2 cos 2
... 4 cos ) ( 2 2 cos 2
sin
2
4 2 0
t n m J
t m J t m J m J
t
m f n
m f m f f
c
e
e e
e
21 23
Constituent I =
( ) ( )| |
| | ( )| | ... 2 cos . sin 2 .. 4 cos . sin ) ( 2
2 cos . sin 2 sin
2 4
2 0
+ + +
+ +
t n t m J t t m J
t t m J t m J
m c f n m c f
m c f c f
e e e e
e e e
This can be further expanded to
Constituent I =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ... 2 sin
2
1
2 sin
2
1
2
.. 4 sin
2
1
4 sin
2
1
) ( 2
2 sin
2
1
2 sin
2
1
2 sin
2
4
2 0
+
(

e e + e + e +
+
(

e e + e + e +
(

e e + e + e + e
t n t n m J
t t m J
t t m J t m J
m c m c f n
m c m c f
m c m c f c f
25
26
) sin( ) sin( cos sin 2 B A B A B A + + =
Substituting Eq in Eq we get the expansion of Constituent II
( )
( ) ..... ) 1 2 sin( cos 2
... 3 sin cos ) ( 2 sin cos 2
1 2
3 1
+ +
+ +

t n t m J
t t m J t t m J
m c f n
m c f m c f
e e
e e e e
Constituent II =
This can be expanded further using trigonometric identities as
Constituent II =
24
22
( )
( )
( ) x t n t n m J
t t m J
t t m J
m m c f n
m c m c f
m c m c f
... ) ) 1 2 sin(
2
1
) ) 1 2 ( sin(
2
1
2
... ) 3 sin(
2
1
) 3 sin(
2
1
2
) sin(
2
1
) sin(
2
1
2
1 2
3
1
+
(

e e + e +
+
(

e e e + e +
(

e e e + e

this is the final expansion of constituent II.

27
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | | t n t n m J
t n t n m J
t t m J
t t m J
t t m J
t t m J t m J e
m c m c f n
m c m c f n
m c m c f
m c m c f
m c m c f
m c m c f c f o
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e e
2 sin 2 sin ) (
1 2 sin ) 1 2 ( sin ) (
....
4 sin 4 sin ) (
3 sin 3 sin ) (
2 sin 2 sin ) (
sin sin ) ( sin ) (
2
1 2
4
3
2
1
+ + +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + =

Both these constituents can be substituted to get the final

expression as
This eq represents the entire frequency spectrum of an FM wave.
It can be clearly seen from this equation that there are an infinite
number of lower and upper side bands along with the un-modulated
carrier signal represented by sin c (t).
28
The amplitude of the carrier signal is J o(mf), and the
amplitude of the USBs and LSBs are
), ( ), ( ), (
3 2 1 f f f
m J m J m J
up to infinity. The angular frequencies of LSBs are
), 3 ( ), 2 ( ), (
m c m c m c
e e e e e e up to infinity, and the
angular frequencies of USBs are
) 2 ( ), 2 ( ), (
m c m c m c
e + e e + e e + e
As there are an infinite number of side bands in the FM signal, the
bandwidth of an FM system required to transmit the entire spectrum is
infinite. This is practically not feasible and therefore, only a finite number of
side bands are transmitted to have a finite and practically feasible bandwidth
of the systems.

It can be shown that the output consists of carrier and an apparently
infinite number of pairs of sidebands. Each preceded by J coefficients.
These are Bessel functions. Here they happen to be of the first kind and
of the order denoted by he subscript, with the argument m. J May be
shown to be a solution of an equation of the form
( ) 0 ) (
2 2
2
2
2
= + + y n m
dm
dy
m
dm
y d
m
f
f
f
f
f
( ) ( ) ( )
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= .....
! 1 ! 3
2
! 2 ! 2
2
! 1 ! 1
2
!
1
2
) (
6 4 2
n
m
n
m
n
m
n
m
m J
f f f
n
f
f n
In order to evaluate the value of a given pair of sidebands or the
value of the carrier, it is necessary to know the value of the
corresponding Bessel function. Separate calculation from this
equation for each case is not required, since info is already available
in form of a table or graphical form.



THE FOLLOWING POINTS ARE OBSERVED FROM THIS
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM :-
There are an infinite number of lower and upper side bands in
the spectrum.
The USBs are located at +m, +2 m, +3 m, up to infinity
with reference to the location of the carrier frequency. This
shows that the separation between the two adjacent side bands is
m on the frequency axis.
The LSBs are located at -m, -2 m, -3 m up to infinity. This
shows that the adjacent LSBs are also separated by m.
The sidebands at equal distances from c have equal
amplitudes, so that the sideband distribution is symmetrical
about the carrier frequency. The J coefficients occasionally have
negative values, signifying a 180phase change for that particular
pair of sidebands.
It is seen from the table that as m increases, so does the value
of a particular J coefficient.

Bearing in mind that m is inversely proportional to modulating
frequency, we see that the relative amplitude of distant sidebands
increases when the modulation frequency is lowered.

The previous statement assumes that deviation (i.e., the
modulating voltage) has remained constant.

In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the sideband
power and therefore the total transmitted power. In FM, the total
transmitted power always remains constant, but with increased
depth of modulation the required bandwidth is increased.



To be quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth required
to transmit a relatively undistorted signal. This is true because
increased depth of modulation means increased deviation, and
therefore an increased modulation index, so that more distant
sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
In practice, the bandwidth used is one that has been
calculated to allow for all significant amplitudes of sideband
components under the most exacting conditions.
This really means Ensuring that, with maximum deviation by
the highest modulating frequency, no significant sideband
component are lopped off.
The J coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases,
but not in any simple manner. As seen in Figure 5-3, the value
fluctuates on either side of zero, gradually diminishing.

Since each J coefficient represents the amplitude of a particular
pair of sidebands, these also eventually decrease, but only past a
certain value of n. The modulation index determines how many
sideband components have significant amplitudes.

The amplitude of the carrier signal was assumed equal to unity
while deriving Eq 28 for instantaneous freq to get the frequency
spectrum of an FM signal. But in fig the amplitude of the carrier
signal is marked in the solid line at c as less than 1. This is
because the total transmitting power of the FM signal is given as :
R
E
R
E
P
c
c
T
2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
29
In this equation, R is the resistance of the transmitting antenna,
in ohms. If R = 1.0 ohms, then equation becomes,
2
2
c
T
E
P =
As Ec is always constant, the power of an FM signal, given by this
equation will be constant.
30
There are side bands in FM signal that should also contain some
power. In an FM system, the total power is shared by all the side
bands and the carrier signal .Therefore, the side bands take their
power from the carrier power.
This reduces the carrier power in the modulated signal and the
amplitude of the un-modulated carrier present in the FM signal
reduces.
As the number of side bands increase, the amplitude of the
carrier in the transmitted signal decreases to maintain the total
power of the FM signal at a constant value.
This is the reason why the carrier amplitude is not equal to unity,
as assumed earlier. If the number of side bands is reduced in the
transmitted FM signal, the carrier amplitude will correspondingly
increase.
It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to
disappear completely. This happens for certain values of the
modulation index, called eigenvalues. Fig-y, shows that these are
approximately 2.4,5.5,8.6,11.8, and so on. Disappearances of the
carrier for specific values of m form a handy basis for measuring
deviation.
BESSELS FUNCTIONS
The expression of an FM wave given by eq 28, is written in
terms of the Bessels function, .
The function is called the Bessels function of the first
kind and of the nth order. The value of this function depends on
the value of modulation index, , which is an argument of the
Bessels function .
It can be seen from FM eq that the amplitudes of the various
side bands are given by the Bessel's functions
up to infinity.
To have the exact values of the side band amplitudes, it is
necessary to calculate the values of the Bessels function. The
solution of the Bessels function involves complicated and
advanced mathematics. Mathematicians have already estimated
the values of these functions for different estimated the values of
these functions for different orders and different values of .
) (
f n
m J
) (
f n
m J
) (
f
m
n
J
), ( ), ( ), (
3 2 1 f f f
m J m J m J
f
m
The different values of are given in a tabular form in the
table. The values given in the table are used to get the
amplitude of side bands and carrier signals present in an FM
wave.
To get estimated values of the Bessels function, ,
two parameters are required, the order n, and the argument .
The column in table present the values of the function for
different orders, starting from n =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on for the
given value of .
The rows present the modulation index, . The Bessel's
function in this case is written as The order n gives the
number of frequency components presents in the FM signal. The
amplitudes of these frequency components are obtained for
different values of n as : and so on where,
n= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
) (
f n
m J
f
m
f
m
... 2 , 1 =
f
m
). (
f n
m J
) 1 ( ), 1 ( ), 1 ( ), 1 (
3 2 1
J J J J
o
f
m
) 1 ( n
J
The values of are tabulated in column mf =1 as given in
table.
Fig -y
Equation 28 for entire freq spec of an FM can be written for an
FM signal whose frequency components are estimated as given in
table 3.2. This equation is given below :
| |
| |
| |
| | t t J
t t J
t t J
t t J t J e
m c m c
m c m c
m c m c
m c m c c o
) 4 sin( ) 4 sin( ) 1 (
) 3 sin( ) 3 sin( ) 1 (
) 2 sin( ) 2 sin( ) 1 (
) sin( ) sin( sin ) 1 (
4
3
2
1
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e e
+ + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + =
Substituting the estimated values of the Bessels function in this
Eq. from the table we get,
| |
| |
| |
| | t t
t t
t t
t t t e
m c m c
m c m c
m c m c
m c m c c
) 4 sin( ) 4 sin( 002477 . 0
) 3 sin( ) 3 sin( 01956 . 0
) 2 sin( ) 2 sin( 1149 . 0
) sin( ) sin( 4401 . 0 sin 7652 . 0
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e
e e e e e
+ + + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + =
31
32
The frequency spectrum of this equation is illustrated in the
given figure.This way table gives the estimated value of all side
bands and carrier signals presents in an FM signal for predefined
values of mf. From table it can be seen that as the modulation
index, mf increases, the number of side bands also increases. This
illustrates that the bandwidth of an FM signal depends on its
modulation index.
NARROW BAND AND WIDE BAND FM SIGNALS
In an FM wave, the carrier signal is accompanied by an infinite
number of USBs, which is given by eq. .Therefore, the
theoretical bandwidth of an FM system is infinite, which is not
practically feasible. To have a limited bandwidth of the system
such that the reproduction of the transmitted signal at the receiver
side is satisfactory, a limited number of side bands are transmitted.
28
Note
The power of a transmitted FM signal is not reduced if the number
of side bands in the transmitted signal is reduced. This stems from
the fact that total power of an FM signal remains constant and
depends on the amplitude of the carrier. The total power of the FM
signal is independent of the amplitudes and the number of side
bands present in the transmitted signal. The total transmitting
power of an FM signal is given as :
R
E
P
c
T
2
2
=
Based on the approach of limiting the bandwidth of an FM
system, we can categorize FM signals as :
Narrow Band FM (NBFM)
Wide Band FM (WBFM)
To explain the two types of FM signals, consider the estimated
values of the amplitudes of side bands in an FM signal. It is
clear from table that the modulation index mf increases, the
number of side bands in an FM signal also increases. Thus, for
higher values of mf, a large band width is required to transmit
all side bands.
NBFM
To limit the bandwidth of an FM signals, only a small number of
side bands are to be transmitted. This is possible only when the
demodulation index mf, is kept low. From table it can be seen that
for lower values of mf, the number side bands is small. These side
bands have significant amplitudes and all other higher order side
bands are ignored because they do not have significant amplitudes.
It can also be seen from table that for mf = 1, there are two USBs
and two LSBs along with the carrier signal. The bandwidth
required to transmit this signal is small.
In addition, mf can further be reduced so that only one pair of
side bands has significant amplitudes. In this case, the bandwidth
required will be very small. This type of FM is called the NBFM.
This is possible when mf is made smaller than unity, that is :

1 <<
f
m
An FM signal in which mf is small enough so that only two side
bands, one USB and one LSB, have significant amplitudes is called
narrow band FM. Thus in NBFM, two side bands are located at
and around ) (
m c
e e + ) (
m c
e e .
c
e
WBFM
If the modulation index mf is very large, then a larger number
of side bands are generated as shown in table. Some of these side
bands have significant amplitudes while others have smaller
amplitudes. In this case, the bandwidth required to
accommodate all the side bands is large. This FM signal is
known as WBFM. Therefore, an FM signal whose modulation
index is such that :
1 >>
f
m
This is called WBFM, and contains a large no of side bands in
its frequency spectrum.
From bessel fn table it can be seen that there are 16 side bands
if mf=10. It should also be noted that table can further be
expanded for higher orders, for example n = 30.
However, all the higher order side bands in WBFM may not
have significant amplitudes. These insignificant amplitude side
bands are present in the frequency spectrum and therefore
increase the bandwidth of the system.
Though WBFM is not economical because of the wide
bandwidth, its quality is much better than NBFM because it
contains more side bands and therefore, helps in accurately
retrieving the original signal.

CARSONS RULE
Carsons rule gives the estimation of the bandwidth of an FM
system. This rule states that the bandwidth of an FM system is
double the sum of the maximum frequency deviation fd and the
highest modulating frequency fm. Thus, if B is the bandwidth of
the system, then according to Carsons rule :
) ( 2
m d
f f B + =
This rule is based upon experimental results that proved that there
are a limited number of side bands around the carrier frequency,
which contain approximately 98 percent of the total power of an
FM signal.
All the remaining side bands in the frequency spectrum contain
only 2 percent of the total power. Thus, it is obvious that the
bandwidth of an FM system can be reduced to a practically feasible
limit at the expanse of 2 percent of the total power.

33
The loss of 2 percent of total power is a wise trade off between
the quality of the received signal and the bandwidth, as infinite
bandwidth is required to transmit the total power of an FM
signal.
It is also observed that if only a few side bands are transmitted
through limited bandwidth, then the distortion produced in the
recovered base band signal at the receiver is negligible and the
quality of the recovered signal is not severely degraded.
Therefore, the band width of an FM system is brought with in
practically feasible limits by transmitting only those side bands
that contains 98 percent of the total power of the system.
Table gives the values of the various Bessels functions that
appear in the equation of an FM wave. These values are the
amplitudes of the side bands present in the modulated signal
and are used to determine the power distribution in an FM
signal.
It is also found that for a given value of the modulation index mf,
98 percent of the total power of the FM signal is contained in the
side bands that lie between the order n =0 and n =( +1). For
example, consider =2. According to this, the side bands
containing 98 percent of total power are those with the
amplitudes .Similarly, if is 5,
there will be seven side bands, and all other side bands are
suppressed. This reduces the bandwidth of an FM system from its
infinite value.
Consider figure that illustrates the frequency spectrum for
=1, There are four significant USBs and LSBs. However,
as discussed, only need to be transmitted.
Therefore, only two USBs located at and
LSBs located at along with the carrier
signal at c to be transmitted. The total bandwidth required to
transmit these frequency components can
f
m
f
m
and J J J
o
), 2 ( ), 2 ( ), 2 (
2 1
) 2 (
3
J
f
m
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ), 1 (
2 1
andJ J J
o
( ) ( )
m c m c
and e e e e 2 + +
f
m
( ) ( )
m c m c
and e e e e 2
The modulation index, is defined as :
f
m
m f
f m B ) 1 ( 2 + =
) ( 2
m m f
f f m B + =
or
be written as :
m
d
f
f
f
m =
or
From these eq we get ,
m f d
f m f =
) ( 2
m d
f f B + =
Eq.36 is the Carsons rule. This was the method used by
Carson to derive the rule for the estimation of BW of FM
system.
Consider Equation 34 to estimate the bandwidth of NBFM and
WBFM systems. In NBFM, the modulation index, , is lesser
than unity. Therefore, can be ignored as compared to unity
in Equation 34.
f
m
f
m
36
34
35
Thus the bandwidth of NBFM obtained from Equation is :
m NBFM
f B 2 =
In Equation 37 the bandwidth of NBFM is twice the modulating
frequency, . It should be noted that the bandwidth of an AM
signal (DSB-FC and DSB-SC) is also equal to double the
modulating frequency. Therefore, the bandwidth of AM and
NBFM are the same.
If , is considered large, then a large no of side bands are
included in the transmitted signal and the Fm signal is called
WBFM. Thus, in WBFM, the value of , is greater than unity
and in Eq. 34, unity can be ignored in comparison with , to
appropriate the bandwidth to :
m
f
f
m
f
m
f
m
m f NBFM
f m B 2 =
Substituting Equation (35) in Equation (38), you get :
37
38
d NBFM
f B 2 =
Therefore, in WBFM, the appropriate bandwidth of the system is
twice the maximum frequency deviation of the FM signal, as given
by Eq. (39).
39
GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS
As seen in the definition of frequency modulation (FM), the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal in FM varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
If, by some means, the frequency of the carrier oscillator can be
made to vary according to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
then the output of the oscillator will be the FM signal.
A carrier osc generates the reqd carrier freq. There are several
ways of controlling the oscillator frequency by an external voltage,
which in this case is the modulating signal.

The output of the carrier osc, whose frequency is controlled by the
modulating signal, will be the FM signal. This approach to FM
generation is called the direct method of FM generation.
In the indirect method of FM generation, the FM signal is
generated using the phase-modulated signal called the Armstrong
method of FM generation.
The methods of FM generation are :
Direct method: The following are the most popular
techniques of FM generation that employ the direct method:
Indirect modulator : The Armstrong method is the most
popular technique of FM generation that employs the indirect
method.
Varactor Diode modulator

Reactance modulator
DIRECT METHODS OF FM GENERATION
The basic principle involved in the direct method of FM generation is to
control the frequency of the carrier osc, by the modulating signal, such
that the oscillator frequency varies in proportion to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
The carrier osc consists of a tank circuit, which is the parallel
combination of an inductor and a capacitor. Varying the inductor or the
capacitor of the tank circuit can vary the frequency of the carrier Osc.
In the direct method of FM generation, an electronic device is made a
part of the tank circuit. When an external voltage is applied to this
electronic device, it is made to represent the effect of a variable inductor
or capacitor.
This results in the variation of either the inductor or the capacitor of the
tank circuit, which in turn varies the frequency of the Osc. If the external
voltage is the modulating signal, the output of the carrier osc is the
frequency-modulated signal.
VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR.
A varactor diode modulator uses a varactor diode as an electronic
device that gives the effect of a variable capacitor. The simplified
circuit diagram of a varactor diode modulator is shown in Fig.
The circuit consists of a transistorized sine-wave osc that
generates the carrier signal at the reqd transmitting frequency, fc.
The frequency of oscillations produced by the osc depends on the
tank circuit connected at the collector of the transistor, Q. The
resonance frequency of the tank circuit is given by the equation :


In this Equation L and C are the values of inductance and the
capacitance, respectively. The equation represents the frequency
of the carrier oscillator that is varied by using the varactor diode
circuit.
LC
f
o
t
=
2
1
1
Varactor Diode Circuit
A varactor diode is a special diode whose junction capacitance
varies with the applied reverse bias voltage.Figure shows the cct.
Diagram of a varactor diode modulator.
The junction capacitance has a fixed value, C
o
, under reverse-
biased conditions. When a fixed reverse-bias voltage, V
b
, is
applied to the diode, the capacitance C
o
is assumed to correspond
to V
b
. If the applied reverse-biased voltage is varied then the
junction capacitance will also vary from C
o
, according to the
applied voltage.
The applied reverse-bias voltage is varied by adding the
modulating signal to it. The variation in the applied voltage will
vary the junction capacitance of the varactor diode. This, in turn,
will vary the frequency of the carrier Osc. In this case, the
carrier frequency will be given as :
) ( 2
1
o
o
C C L
f
+ t
=
In figure it can be seen that the fixed dc biasing voltage, V
B
,
provides a fixed reversed-bias across the varactor diode, D.
However, the modulating voltage, e
m
, is connected in series with
V
B
. The modulating voltage e
m
, is supplied to the varactor diode
through the transformer, T2. In this case, the total reverse-bias
voltage across the varactor diode D is v
B
, as shown in the figure
above and is given as :
2
Because the modulating voltage varies, the total bias across the
diode will also vary accordingly, which in turn varies the
junction capacitance of the diode.
Let C
d
be the junction capacitance of D under the influence of v
B

at any instant of time. The junction capacitance changes from C
o

to C
d
when a modulating voltage is applied. This change is
directly proportional to e
m
, and, therefore, the junction
capacitance at any instant of time can be written as :
In equation (4), is the change in junction capacitance due to
change in modulating voltage, e
m
.
Therefore, the junction capacitance Cd at any instant of time
depends on the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal em.
m B B
e V v + =
C C C
o d
A + =
C A
n
o
d
V
C
C =
( )
n
R
o
d
V
C
C
| +
=
) (
1
2
n
o
V C C L

+
= e
3
4
To show how C
d
varies the frequency of the Osc, Fig is simplified
by representing the carrier Osc as a block. The simplified version
of figure is shown in the given figure.
According to the theory of amplifiers, the varactor diode D comes
in parallel with the collector circuit of the transistor Q. Therefore,
the tank circuit is connected in parallel with the varactor diode or
the junction capacitance C
d
, as shown in figure.
In this situation, the capacitance Cd becomes a part of the tank
circuit such that its total capacitance becomes :
d T
C C C + =
The above Figure shows total capacitance C
T
, given by Eq (5).This
capacitance is shown as a variable because it varies with the
modulating voltage. It is obvious that since there is a change in the
capacitance of the tank circuit, there will be a corresponding change
in the carrier frequency fc given by Eq (6) . The changes arises
because (C+C
d
) will be replaced by CT.
5
T
i
LC
f
t
=
2
1
) ( 2
1
d
i
C C L
f
+ t
=
Substituting Eq. (5) in Eq (6), you get
The instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is thus given as :

Substituting Eq. (4) in Eq (7), you get
) ( 2
1
C C C L
f
o
i
A + +
=
t
C L C C L
f
o
i
A + +
=
) ( 2
1
t
7
6
8
) (
1
1
) ( 2
1
o
o
i
C C L
C L C C L
f
+
A
+
+
=
t
o
o
i
C C
C C C L
f
+
A
+
+
=
1
1
) ( 2
1
t
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq (10), we get
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
A
+
=
o
c i
C C
C
f f
1
1
9
10
11
2
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
A
+ =
o
c i
C C
C
f f
(

+
A
=
o
c i
C C
C
f f
2
1
1
Substituting this in above it can be simplified using the series
expansion as :
1 ... ).... 1 ( ) 1 ( << + ~ + x when nx x
n
because
13
INDIRECT-ARMSTRONG METHOD OF FM GENERATION
In the Armstrong method of FM generation, the FM signal is
generated through phase modulation (PM). The FM and PM
signals are similar, and, therefore, it is possible to generate FM
through PM. The disadvantage of this method is that it can
generate only narrow band FM (NBFM). To get wide band FM
(WBFM), the frequency of NBFM is multiplied to expand the
frequency spectrum.
To fully understand the technique involved in the Armstrong
method, consider the following analysis. Suppose the modulating
signal is given by em, and carrier signal is expressed as ec. These
two signals are represented by the following equations:
t E e
m m m
e = cos
1
The equation of a PM wave when e
m
phase modulates e
c
, is given as:
Comparing eq 3 &4, we get,
t E e
c c c
e sin =
The equation of an FM involving e
m
and e
c
is given as :
(

+ = t
E K
t E e
m
m
m f
c c FM
e
e
e sin sin
| | t E K t E e
m m P c c PM
e + e = cos sin

m
appears in the denominator of the second term of the
bracket in the equation of FM

m
does not appear in the second term of the bracket in the
eq of PM.
2
3
4
Thus, the two waves are similar, with only one difference. The
term appears in FM instead of the term which
appears in PM.
If is integrated, then it is converted into . In other
words, the modulating signal is modified and is given as
m
m
t
e
e sin
}
e
e
= e = t tdt e
m
m
m
m
sin
1
cos
'
In FM, the total phase varies with sin
m
t.
In PM, the total phase varies with .
K
p
and K
f
in PM and FM waves, respectively are constant and
can be ignored for analysis.
t
m
e cos
t
m
e cos
t
m
e cos
5
m
m
t
e
e sin
Above Equations 3, 4 and 5 suggest that an FM signal can be
generated through PM if the modulating voltage is integrated
before it is applied to the phase modulator.
The process of integrating the modulating signal is called pre-
distortion. When a pre- distorted modulating signal, e
m
is applied
to a phase demodulator along with the carrier signal, e
c
, the
modified modulating signal phase-modulates the carrier e
c
. The
output of PM will be a phase modulated signal, however, this is a
frequency modulated signal, and is given as :
(

e
e
+ e = = t
E K
t E e e
m
m
m p
c c PM FM
sin sin
Equations 6 is similar to Eq. 3 if the constants & are ignored.
Therefore, Eq 6 is a frequency-modulated signal through it is the
output of the phase modulator. This process is shown in the figure.
Figure shows the generation of an FM signal using the indirect
method.
p
k
f
k
6
Generation of FM using indirect method
Generation of NBFM.
Final FM Equation, represents the entire frequency spectrum of an
FM signal. This signal contains an infinitE number of side band
pairs. If only one pair of side band (One LSB and One USB) is
allowed to transmit and all higher order pairs are suppressed, then
this FM signal is known as NBFM.
The Eq of NBFM, with the carrier signal suppressed and
amplitudes of side bands ignored, can be written from FM Eq as :
( ) ( )t t e
m c m c NBFM
e e e + e = sin sin
Now consider a DSB-SC signal generated using e
m
as given by Eq
(5) and e
c
, given by Eq (2). if the amplitudes E
m
, E
c
and
m
are
ignored, then the DSB-SC signal so generated can be expressed as :
1
It should be noted that is also ignored in THIS eq because only
side bands are important here, and this approximation does not
alter the modulation process.
Comparing Eqs (1) and (2) makes it clear that there is a phase
difference of 90
o
between the corresponding side bands of NBFM
and DSB-SC signals.
This suggested that an NBFM signal can be obtained from a DSB-
SC signal if its side bands are shifted in phase by 90
o
.
In addition, the DSB-SC signal should be generated with the free
distorted modulating signal e
m
, using the balanced modulator.

( ) ( )t t e
m c m c SC DSB
e e e e + + =

cos cos
t t e
m c SC DSB
e e =

sin sin
2
Thus, in the Armstrong method the phase modulation is also
carried out through the balanced modulator. This method
generates the NBFM signal. To generate the WBFM signal, the
NBFM signal is applied to frequency multipliers to raise the
frequency to the requisite level. This process of FM generation is
shown in figure.
The outline of the Armstrong method of FM generation is
summarized as :

The modulation signal, e
m
, is free distorted (integrated) to get
e
m
.It replaces cos
m
t by . in Eq (3.46).
In Pre-distorted signal is used to modulate the amplitude of
the carrier signal e
c
in a balanced modulator, which gives one
USB & one LSB as a DSB-SC signal.
m
m
t
e
e sin
The output of the balanced modulator is then given to a 90
o

phase shift network to shift the phase of side bands to 90
o
.
The output of the phase shift network is mixed with the carrier
signal e
c
, to fully constitute the NBFM signal.
To get a WBFM signal, the NBFM signal is applied to a
frequency multiplier, which generate the higher harmonics of the
side bands and raises the frequency of the FM signal.
SUMMARY.
The two method of generating FM signals are direct and indirect.
The direct methods of generating FM signal are varactor diode
modulator and reactance modulator. In the direct method of FM
generation, the frequency of the carrier oscillator is controlled so
that the oscillator frequency varies in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
A varactor diode modulator is used as a varator diode as an
electronic device that gives the effect of a variable capacitor. A
reactance modulator is the FM modulator that makes use of
devices such as BJT & FET to control the frequency of oscillation.
The reactance modulator has a slight modification in its circuit
that makes it possible to use it as both capacitive & inductive
reactance. Therefore, a reactance modulator can be used as a
capacitive reactance modulator and inductive reactance
modulator.
Introduction
Frequency modulation (FM) is the process that varies the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of modulation signal, keeping the
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal constant. A frequency-
modulated signal, as a result carries the modulating signal in
frequency variations.
Therefore, the frequency modulation sys may be thought of as a
voltage-to-frequency converter. After frequency modulation, the
carrier signal exhibits frequency deviation from its carrier
frequency also called the centre frequency.
The central frequency increases or decreases according to the
variation in the modulating voltage or signal.
DEMODULATION OF FM SIGNALS.
The demodulation process is the reverse of the modulation
process. FM demodulation is the process that accepts the
frequency deviation as its input and converts the frequency
deviation from the central frequency into its corresponding
voltage variations.
The demodulation of FM is similar to a frequency to voltage
converter. The output voltage of an FM demodulator is the
modulating signal that was originally used to modulate the carrier
signal before its txn. The various sys developed using this basic
principle are :
Slope detector
Balance slope detector
Foster-Seeley discriminator
Ratio detector
Phase Locked-Loop (PLL) demodulators
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF FM DEMODULATORS.

The basic principle of FM demodulation, also called detection, is
based on conversion of the frequency variations of an FM signal
to the corresponding voltage variations.

The frequency-to-voltage converter circuit carries out this task.
The output of the frequency-to-voltage converter has frequency
variations as well as voltage variations. Both the frequency and
voltage variations contains AM and FM.

This output is then passed to an AM detector that detects the
peaks of the envelope and separates the carrier signal from the
modulating signal.

Figure given shows the block diagram of a basic FM demodulator,
which represents the basic principles of FM demodulation shown
in figure.

Block diag for FM demodulation
O/p of F-to-V
is AM+FM
sig is amp
demodulated
to detect the
envelope
Rectified sig
carrying the
envelope to
be detected
The recd FM signal r(t) has constant amplitude and a frequency
deviation that is proportional to the amplitude variation of the
modulating signal. The modulating signal can be detected if the
frequency deviation is converted into its corresponding amplitude
variation. The frequency-to-voltage converter circuit translates
the frequency deviation into the corresponding amplitude
variation.

Figure shows a frequency-to-voltage converter, which is a parallel
resonating or tank circuit.

FREQUENCY-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTER
This circuit consists of an inductor, L, connected in parallel with a
capacitor, C. The resonating frequency of this circuit, f
o
, is given
as :
LC
f
t
=
2
1
0
At the resonating frequency, the inductive reactance, XL, is equal
to the capacitive reactance, Xc, as :
c L
X X =
C f
L f
o
o
t
t
2
1
2 =
The inductive reactance is opposite in nature to the capacitive
reactance and equal in magnitude at the resonating frequency, as
given by Eqs. 2 & 3, and the two reactance cancel each other. At the
resonating frequency, the impedance of the tank circuit is minimum,
and it becomes purely resistive.
1
2
3
VOL Vs FREQ CURVE OF RESONATING CCT
As the imp is a fn of
freq the vol across tank
cct also depends upon
the freq of applied sig.
O/p of tank cct
carries amp varn
that is proportional
to the modulating sig
Freq of
o/p sig is
still same
An FM signal is demodulated using the setup shown in figure. It is
necessary in the demodulation process that the translation of
frequency deviation into corresponding voltage variation be linear.
The resonating circuit is tuned in such a manner that the applied
signal lies in the linear portion of fig showing VOL Vs FREQ
CURVE OF RESONATING CCT
This linear portion lies between points A & B of the positive slope of
the voltage Vs frequency fig & lies on the right of the resonating
frequency, fo.
The above tech of FM detection is called slope detection, and the cct
is called a slope detector. The output of the slope detector is shown
in figure 7.4. The cct is tuned at a frequency fc, that is slightly
different from the central-frequency f
o
, such that the central
frequency of the carrier signal lies in the linear portion of the
voltage-frequency curve. In figure 7.4, the frequency deviation
curve is applied at f
c
in the linear portion.
PRINCIPLE OF SLOPE DETECTOR.
O/p of slope detector
The ve slope is avoided because in this case
the envelope is inverted, while in +ve slope
the o/p vol is in phase with the modulated sig
If the max. frequency deviation in
the input FM signal is +df, the
operating frequency range of the
voltage Vs frequency curve will
be (f
c
-df) to (f
c
+df), as clearly
shown in figure. This range
covers the linear region of the
curve.
This frequency deviation becomes linearly converted into
corresponding voltage variations, such that the output developed
across the resonating circuit is not only frequency modulated, but
also amplitude modulated, marked as (AM+FM) signal in figure.
This output is then rectified and filtered to obtain the modulating
signal e
m
as shown in fig 1.
Frequency Discriminators.
The FM detectors that use frequency deviation to obtain the voltage
variation corresponding to the frequency variation in the recd FM
signal are classified as frequency discriminators. Frequency
discriminators use the slope-detection technique of an LC
resonating circuit, as described in the basic principle of FM
demodulation. The two types of frequency discriminators are:
Slope Detectors
Balanced Slope Detectors
SLOPE DETECTOR
According to the principle of the slope detector, the recd FM signal
is applied to an LC resonating cct whose output is an amplitude and
frequency-modulated signal. This signal is then passed to an AM
detector, which uses a detector diode, D, as shown in figure to
recover the modulating signal, V
s.
The cct diagram of a slope detector is shown in fig on next slide.
This cct is also known as a single-tuned slope detector.
The transformer, T, shown in figure passes the signal to the diode D.
The secondary winding of the transformer, T, is used as the
inductor, and a capacitor, C
T
, is connected in parallel to constitute
an LC resonant cct.
Symbolically, f
o
>f
c
is shown in figure.
Single tuned slope detector
FM
sig
The frequency variation is converted into the corresponding voltage
variation, and the voltage available at the anode of the diode D
carries both the amplitude variation and the frequency in direct
proportion to the modulating signal. This is marked as v
o
in figure.
The detector diode D rectifies the secondary voltage v
D
, which is
marked as r(t) in figure. The rectified voltage is used to charge the
capacitor C up to the peak values.
The capacitor discharges through the resistance R to develop the
modulating voltage, v
o
,. This modulating voltage is the voltage e
m
as
marked in figure. As a result, the slope-detector cct demodulates the
recd FM signal and recover the original modulating signal.
Drawbacks of Slope Detector.
A slope detector has the following drawbacks :
Although a slope detector is a very simple and low-cost cct, it has a severe drawback,
which amounts to harmonic distortion. The frequency range over which the voltage Vs
frequency curve, shown in fig, remains linear, is very small. Therefore, all frequency
deviations are not linearly translated into their corresponding voltage variations. When the
non-linear portion of the curve comes into effect, the output of the resonating cct contains
the corresponding voltage variation and the higher harmonics of this voltage. This
introduces distortion into the requisite output.
A slope detector transfers even the slightest amplitude variation of the incoming FM
signal to the output because it does not reject the amplitude variation of the incoming FM
signal and responds equally to these variations.
Therefore, if there is an increase or decrease in the amplitude of the recd FM signal,
which is unwanted, the same change is reflected at the output along with the amplitude
variations due to the frequency deviations, which is desirable. This alters the original
signal, and the true modulating signal is not recovered.
Due to these drawbacks, the slope detector is hardly used in practice. The drawback of the
slope detector are removed in the balanced slope detector, another frequency
discriminator.
BALANCED SLOPE DETECTOR.
A balanced slope detector is an improved version of the slope
detector. The drawback of harmonic distortion is removed in this
detector by using two slope detectors instead of one as in a single-
tuned slope detector.
Figure shows the cct diagram of a balanced slope detector.

Freq response of double balanced slope detector
Diode D1 rectifies
this amp & FM vol
Diode D2 rectifies
this amp & FM vol
Circuit Operation.
The cct diagram shown in figure, has two slope detectors marked
as slope detector 1 and slope detector 2. Both the slope detectors
are called balanced because they have identical components as
follows :
Slope Detector 1 : It consists of a detector diode D1, filter
capacitor C1, load resistor R1, and variable capacitor CT1. The
variable capacitor CT1 is called the tuning capacitor because it
is adjusted to tune the upper winding of the secondary winding
of the input transformer T.
Slope detector 2 : It consists of a detector diode D2 that is
identical to D1. It also has filter capacitor C2, load resistor R2,
and variable capacitor , CT2. The tuning capacitor CT2 tunes
the lower winding of the secondary winding of the input
transformer T.
The two slope detectors are balanced because C1 =C2, R1 =R2
and D1 is identical to D2. The upper and lower windings of the
secondary windings of the centre-tap transformer T are also
identical.
The primary winding of the input transformer T is tuned to the
central frequency of the carrier f
c
, by using the tuning capacitor
C
T
. The secondary windings are tuned to different frequencies so
that the cct is staggered tuned.
The outputs of the detectors diodes D1 and D2 are filtered by C1,
R1 and C2, R2, respectively. The voltage v1, which is developed
across R1, and voltage v
2
, which is developed across R2, are
added together between the point E and F to get the final voltage
v
o
, which is the modulating voltage e
m
.

Circuit Operation.
The operation of the circuit can be explained by considering the
two slope detectors separately.
Slope detector 1
The resonating frequency of slope detector 1 is set to f1 by
adjusting CT1 so that it is greater than fc by an amount of f. As
a result, slope detector is tuned to f1, given as :


If the max. frequency deviation of the incoming FM signal, r(t), is
+fd , the operating range of slope detector 1 is between fc and
(f
c
+fd) as shown in figure, which illustrates the frequency-
response curves of both slope detectors.

f f f
c
A + =
1
When the incoming signal has a frequency between fc and (fc+fd),
diode D1 is fwd-biased because voltage VD1 increases according
to the frequency-response curve of slope detector 1, as shown in
figure.
The diode rectifies this amplitude and frequency-modulated
voltage. Capacitor C1 and resistor R1 then filter the rectified
voltage. The voltage so developed across R1 is the positive half of
the modulating signal. This can be explained by the frequency-
deviation curve applied at fc on the frequency axis of figure.
The positive half of the frequency-deviation curve lies in the
response curve of slope detector 1. Therefore, the frequency-
deviations that are greater than fc are converted into
corresponding amplitude by slope detector 1.
Slope Detector 2.
Slope detector 2 is tuned to f
2
by adjusting the tuning capacitor
C
T
2 such that :
f f f
c
A =
2
The input FM signal whose frequency deviation lies in between f
c

and (fc-fd) is converted into corresponding amplitude variations
by slope detector 2 because this part of the frequency-deviation
curve lies toward the frequency-response curve of slope detector 2.
The voltage V
D2
developed across the lower winding of the
secondary of the transformer T is amplitude and frequency
modulated, which corresponds to the frequency deviation from fc
to (fc-fd). This voltage, V
D2
, is is rectified by diode D2 because it is
fwd-biased, and the capacitor C2 output of the balanced slope
detector is the negative half of the modulating signal
corresponding to the deviations lower than f
c
.
Combined Response of Slope Detectors 1 and 2.
The output of the balanced slope detector is the combined output
of the indl slope detectors.
Slope detector 1 provides the positive half of the modulating
signal across the output terminals E & F. When D1 is fwd biased,
the diode D2 is also slightly fwd biased because the voltage
developed across the lower winding is very small. This is because
slope detector 2 is tuned to (fc-f), while the incoming signal lies
between fc & (fc +f).
The conduction of diode D2 results in small current that flows
through R2 from F to D. The direction of the current due to D1 is
from E to D through R1.
Therefore, when a positive voltage is developed across R1, a very
small negative voltage also develops across R2. The sum of these
two voltage appears between output terminals E and F.
Thus, the final output voltage, V
o
, is slightly reduced by a negative
voltage developed across R2.
V
o
=V
1
- V
2
A similar action takes place when the incoming FM signal
contains the frequency deviation between fc and (fc df). The
diode D2 is fwd biased because appreciable positive voltage Vd2
appears across D2.
This is because slope detector 2 is tuned towards (fc-df). This
frequency deviation range lie in the negative half of the
modulating signal. As a result, the voltage developed across R2
after filtering the rectified output of D2 is the negative half of the
modulating signal.
During the conduction of D2, a small voltage also appears across
the upper winding of the secondary winding of transformer T.
This voltage is small because the upper winding is tuned to (fc+
f), while the incoming voltage lies in the frequency range fc to
(fc- f). Due to this voltage, diode D1 also supplies a positive
voltage across R1.
This positive voltage slightly reduce the negative voltage appearing
across R2 when summed up between output terminals E & F. The
net voltage is still a negative half cycle of the modulating signal.
The positive & negative halves of the modulating signal are
available across the output terminals of the balanced slope
detector marked as Vo in fig .The overall response of the slope
detector is shown in the figure & the operating range of the curve
is marked between the points K & L.
This operating range of the overall response curve is a straight
line, and therefore, the operation is linear. This removes the non-
linear behavior of a single tuned slope detector, and the higher
harmonics are not generated in a balanced slope detector.
The overall response curve takes the shape of the letter S, as
shown in figure is called S response of the FM detectors.

Drawbacks of Balanced Slope Detectors.
Although a balanced slope detector is better than a slope
detector, it gets the following drawbacks :
The detector has three winding in the input transformer T,
& all of them are tuned to different frequencies. The primary
winding is tuned to the central frequency of the carrier, fc
using the tuning capacitor C
T
. The two secondary winding
are tuned to (fc+ f) and (fc- f) using the tuning capacitor
C
T1
& C
T2
. The alignment of three tune ccts, called staggered-
tuned, is difficult task that should be accomplished with a
accuracy to obtained a linear S curve.
This slope detector also responds to the amplitude
variations of the input signals. Therefore, it may not provide
a true modulating signal.
The operating frequency range is increased after obtaining
an S shape, but its performance does not improve.
RATIO DETECTOR
A ratio detector is an FM demodulator that does not respond to
the amplitude variations in a recd FM signal. The output of the
ratio detector is proportional to the frequency deviation of the
recd FM signal. An amplitude limiter is not required in a ratio
detector because the cct itself checks the amplitude variation &
nullifies its effect. Therefore, the output of a ratio detector is the
true modulating signal.
Basic Principle of Operation.
The input diode voltages of D1 and D2, shown in figure, are
different at all incoming frequencies other than the incoming
frequency when it was equal to the central frequency of the
carrier signal. The phasor diagram of input diode voltages
V
D1
& V
D2
are shown in figure. The difference of these two diode
voltages produce the desired modulating signal.
These two diode voltages also accompany the noise signal. The
noise is reflected in the output of the two diodes, and the
recovered signal distortions.
A close examination of phasors reveals that the sum of V
D1
and
V
D2
phasors is always constant at all frequencies, even when the
two phasors are at different incoming frequencies. This provides a
provision to check the amplitude variation in the FM signal.
When the phasor (V
D1
+V
D2
) produced at different incoming
frequencies, shown in figure, are measured, their sum is found to
be constant.
Cct diag of a Ratio detector
p s
Mi j v e =
p
in
p
L j
V
i
e
=
p
in
s
L
M V
v =
ab
v
( )
2
2
CT
CT s LS
s
ab
jX
jX R jX
v
v
+
=
2
2
CT s LS
CT
p
in
ab
jX R jX
X
L
jMV
v
+
=
2 CT LS s
X X X =
P p s s
CT in
ab
L
M
L jX R
X V
v
90
2
Z
+
=
in
P S s
CT in
D
V
L
M
jX R
X V
V +
Z
+
=
90
2
1
2
1
Phasor diag showing sum of input diode voltages VD1 and VD2
at diff incoming freq
c i
f f =
c i
f f >
c i
f f <
The sum of VD1 and VD2 is independent of the incoming
frequency of the input FM signal. This fact is utilized in a
ratio detector to render its output independent of
amplitude variation in the input FM signal.

Circuit Description.
The cct diagram of ratio detector is shown in figure. This cct is
derived from the Foster-Seeley phase discriminator. The phase
discriminator is modified to sum up the output of the diodes D1
and D2 across the points A and B of figure. The changes made in
a Foster-Seeley phase discriminator to construct the ratio
detector are :
The diodes D2 is reversed so that the voltage V
Bd
, developed
across R2, comes in series with the voltage V
Ad
, developed
across R1. The two voltages are summed up across the points
A and B. In the case of the phase discriminator, the voltage
appearing across A and B is the difference of V
Ad
and V
Bd
.
Therefore, in a ratio detector :
Bd Ad AB
V V V + =
Cct diag of a Ratio detector
2 1 D D AB
V V V + =
Bd Bd o
V V V =
'
Bd Ad C AB
V V V V + = =
3
1 D AD
V V =
2 D Bd
V V =
2
' 4
AB
Bd R
V
V V = =
2
2 1
'
D D
Bd
V V
V
+
=
2
2 1 D D
o
V V
V

=
( )
Bd Ad o
V V V
2 1 D D AB
V V V + =
An electrolytic capacitor, C3, is connected between A and B
to sum up V
Ad
and V
Bd
. This is done to check the amplitude
variations in the FM signal due to noise.
Two additional resistors , R3 and R4, are connected across A
and B to provide a discharge path to C3. The capacitor C3 is
charged if there is a change in the voltage across A and B due
to noise. The capacitor discharges through R3 and R4 when
the voltage across A and B becomes constant.
The values of R3 and R4 are kept very high as compared to
the resistors R1 and R2, which means R3>R1 and R4 >R2.
This arrangements ensures that the loads to diodes D1 and D2
remain R1 and R2, respectively.

Due to the high values of R3 and R4, they do not affect the
diode currents so that the load conditions of D1 and D2 remain
unaltered. Further to simplify the operation, the values of R3
and R4 are equal, which means R3 =R4.
The output terminals are d-d instead of A-B, as is the case in
the phase discriminator. The out put terminals are changed
because there is a constant voltage across A and B, and,
obviously, it is not the required demodulated voltage. The out
put voltage of the ratio detector, as shown in figure, is :

The Gnd terminal is shifted from B to d, as shown in Figure.
Since the output terminals are d and d, it is necessary to gnd
one of these two terminals. Either of two can be grounded,
however, it is convenient to ground point d, as it is found in
practical ccts of the ratio detector.
Bd Bd o
V V V =
'
Operation of The Ratio Detector.
Irrespective of the fact that some changes are made in the
Foster-Seeley phase discriminator to get the ratio detector, the
operations of the two ccts are same. The added advantage of the
ratio detector is that it does not reflect the amplitude variation
due to noise in its output.
To prove this point, you need to find output voltage, Vo, of the
ratio detector. With reference to Figure, the output voltage can
be written as :
d d o
V V V =
'
1
This equation can be written as as :
The voltage across points A and B is obtained as :
However, the voltages V
Ad
, and V
Bd
are proportional to the input
diode voltages V
D1
and V
D2
. If the constant of proportionality is
taken as unity, we can write :
Bd Bd o
V V V =
'
Bd Ad C AB
V V V V + = =
3
1 D AD
V V =
2 D Bd
V V =
2 1 D D AB
V V V + =
Substituting these equations in above Eq., we get :
2
3
4
5
6
It has already been mentioned that R3 is equal to R4 in the
ratio detector. The voltage developed across C3 is equally
divided between R3 and R4. The voltage developed across each
resistor will be half of V
AB
because the two resistors are
equal.Therefore, the voltage across R4 is given as :
2
' 4
AB
Bd R
V
V V = =
2
2 1
'
D D
Bd
V V
V
+
=
Substitute Eqs (5), (8) in Eq (2), you get Vo as :
2
2 1
2
D
D D
o
V
V V
V
+
=
2
2 1 D D
o
V V
V

=
and this means :
( )
2 1 D D o
V V V
7
8
9
10
( )
Bd Ad o
V V V
The output of the ratio detector is proportional to the
difference of the output voltages of diodes D1 and D2, as given
in Equation (10) and (11). The output of the ratio detector is
same as that of the phase discriminator, which clearly indicates
that the ratio detector also follows the S-shaped response curve.
It can therefore be concluded that the operation of the ratio
detector is same as that of the phase discriminator.
How Ratio Detector Acts as Amplitude Limiter.
The capacitor C3 is connected across the points A and B to limit
the amplitude so that amp variations do not affect the output of
the ratio detector. The capacitor C3 keeps the sum of the
output voltages of the diodes, V
Ad
and V
Bd
, to a constant value
at all incoming frequencies. If there is a change in amplitude in
the FM signal due to noise, C3 acts accordingly and nullifies its
effect.
( )
2 1 D D o
V V V
& 11
To understand the amplitude-limiting effect of a ratio detector,
it is necessary to understand the following :
The sum of V
Ad
and V
Bd
is constant and is independent of the
incoming frequency.
The action of the capacitor changes when the amplitude of
V
in
changes.
Sum of V
Ad
and V
Bd
.
To prove that the sum of V
Ad
and V
Bd
is always constant and
independent of the incoming frequency, consider the three
possible cases of incoming frequency, assuming V
in
is constant.
Case I : f
i
=f
c
, V
in
= Constant
It has already been explained that under this condition, the
output voltages of the two diodes are equal, as shown in phasor
diag. If the output of each diode is V volts, we have :
Bd AD AB
V V V + =
Case II : f
i
>f
c
, V
in
=Constant
It is observed from phasor diag that under this condition V
D1
is
greater than V
D2
. When f
i
is equal to f
c
, the two voltages are
equal to V, as considered in case-I. However, V
D1
increases from
V volts and V
D2
decreases from its value of V volts in equal
amounts. If the increase in V
D1
is V volts, the voltage V
D1
will
decrease from V volts by the same amount, V.
The two voltages for this case are given as :
V V V
AB
+ =
V V
AB
2 =
V V V
D
A + =
1
V V V
D
A =
2
V V V V V
AB
A + A + =
The sum of the two voltages is obtained as :
12
Case III : f
i
<f
c
, V
in
=Constant
Under this condition, V
D1
is less than V
D2
, as shown in phasor
diag. With the same reasoning as in case II, the two voltages
can be obtained as :
V V
AB
2 =
V V V
D
A =
1
V V V
D
A + =
2
V V V V V
AB
A + + A =
So that,
V V
AB
2 =
Conclusion.
The sum of the output voltages of the diodes, which appears as
V
AB
in a ratio detector, is always constant at all frequencies, as
obtained by Equations (12), (13) and (14). Therefore, the
voltage across the capacitor C3 is independent of incoming
frequency.
13
14
Action of C3 to Limit Amplitude.
Consider a situation in which the noise voltage alters the
amplitude of the input FM signal, V
in
. The capacitor comes into
action when there is a change in V
in
. The action of the capacitor
can be explained by considering the three possible conditions of
V
in
.
Case I : V
in
remains constant.
Case I I : V
in
increases.
Case I I I : V
in
reduces.
Case- I : V
in
Remains Constant.
It is proved that if the V
in
is constant, the voltage across A and B
remains constant at all incoming frequencies.
If voltage V
AB
remains constant, the capacitor charges to V
AB
.
Since it is a dc voltage, being constant at all times, it remains
constant across the capacitor C3. Beyond this point, there is no
charging or discharging until V
in
remains constant.
This situation indicates that the capacitor C3 offers infinite
impedance. Therefore, the total load of D1 and D2 is only due to
R1 and R2 because C3 acts as an open cct, and R3 and R4 are
very large as compared to R1 and R2. Therefore, when V
in
is
constant, capacitor C3 does not take any action and is therefore,
constant.
Case-II : V
in
Increases.
When there is an increase in the amplitude of V
in
, the secondary
voltages V
ac
and V
bc
increase accordingly. This increases biasing of
the diodes and the output voltages of D1 and D2 increase in the
same proportion. As a result, the total voltage, V
AB
across the
points A and B increases. Due to the increase in V
AB
, the capacitor
C3 starts charging through the excess current supplied by the two
diodes. This increases the capacitor voltage in the same proportion
as the increase in V
in
. Therefore, under this condition, the voltage
across R2 (V
BD
) and R4 (V
BD
) increase equally. The output voltage
Vo is the difference of V
Bd
and V
Bd

The increase in these two voltages cancel each other at the
output terminals. As a result, the rise in V
in
does not alter the
modulating signal.
Case-III : V
in
Decreases.
When there is an decrease in the input FM voltage, V
in
, the input
diode voltages V
D1
and V
D2
decrease accordingly, and the diode
currents are reduced. The voltage V
AB
is also reduced but this
change does not happen instantaneously because of the presence
of C3, implying that even when there is a decrease in the diode
currents, the voltage across A and B remains constant. This
situation indicates that the load impedance of the diodes has
increased.
The output voltage will not be affected because V
AB
remains
constant even when V
in
decreases. Therefore, the decrease in V
in
is not reflected at the output of the ratio detector. The ratio
detector takes care of any unwanted change in the amplitude of
V
in
due to the timely action of the capacitor C3.
The changes in Vin

are not reflected at the output, and no
additional amplitude limiter is required with a ratio detector.
COMPARISON OF AM AND FM SIGNALS
Both AM & FM systems are used in commercial & non-
commercial applications, such as radio broadcasting and TV
txn. Each system has its own merits and demerits. In a
particular application an AM system can be more suitable
than an FM sys. Thus the two are equally important from the
application point of view.
ADVANTAGES OF FM SYSTEMS OVER AM SYSTEMS
The amplitude of an FM Wave remains constant. This
provides the system designers an opportunity to remove the
noise from the received signal this is done in FM receivers by
employing an amplitude limiter cct so that the noise above the
limiting amplitude is suppressed. Thus the FM system is
considered a noise immune sys. This is not possible in AM
sys because the base band signal is carried by the amplitude
variations itself and the envelope of the AM signal cannot be
altered.
Most of the power in FM signal is carried by the side bands.
For higher values of the modulations index, m
f
, the major
portion of the total power is contained in side bands, and the
carrier signal contains less power. In contrast, in an AM sys,
only 1/3
rd
of the total power is carried by the side bands and 2/3
rd

of the total power is lost in the form of carrier power.
In FM sys, the power of the transmitted signal depends on the
amplitude of the un-modulated carrier signal, & hence it is
constant. In contrast, in AM sys, the power depends on the
modulation index, m
a..
The max allowable power in AM sys is
100% when ma is unity. Such restriction is not applicable in the
case if FM sys. This is because of the total power in FM sys is
independent of the modulation index, mf, and frequency
deviation fd. Therefore, the power usage is optimum in an FM
sys.


In an AM sys, the only method of reducing noise is to increase
the transmitted power of the signal. This operation increases the
cost of the AM sys. In an FM sys, you can increase the
frequency deviation in the carrier signal to reduce the noise. If
the frequency deviation is high, then the corresponding
variation in amplitude of the base band signal can be easily
retrieved. If the frequency deviation is small, noise can over
shadow this variation and the frequency deviation can not be
translated into its corresponding amplitude variation.
Thus by increasing frequency deviations in the FM signal, the
noise effect can be reduced. There is no provision in the AM sys
to reduce the noise effect by any method, other than increasing
its transmitted power.


In an FM signal, the adjacent FM channels are separated by
guard bands . In an FM sys, there is no signal txn through the
spectrum space of the guard band. Therefore, there is hardly
any interference of adjacent FM channels. However, in an AM
sys, there is no guard band provided between the two adjacent
AM channels. Therefore, there is always interference of AM
radio stns unless the received signal is strong enough to
suppress the signal of the adjacent channel.
DISADVANTAGES OF FM SYSTEMS OVER AM
SYSTEMS
The disadvantages of FM Systems over AM Systems are :
There are infinite number of side bands in an FM signal and
therefore the theoretical bandwidth of an FM system is infinite.
The bandwidth of an FM system is limited by Carsons rule, but is
still much higher, especially in WBFM. In AM systems, the
bandwidth is only twice the modulation frequency, which is much
less than that of WBFM. This makes FM systems costlier than AM
systems.
The eqpt of FM systems is more complex than AM systems
because of the complex circuitry of FM systems. This is another
reason that FM systems are costlier than FM systems.
The receiving area of an FM system is smaller than an AM
system. Consequently, FM channels are restricted to metropolitan
areas while AM radio stations can be received anywhere in the
world.
An FM system transmits signals through line of sight
propagation, in which the distance between the transmitting and
receiving antenna should not be much. In an AM system, signals
of short wave band stations are transmitted through atmospheric
layers that reflect the radio wave over a wider area.