States of Matter

state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an ideal gas explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and molecular size: (i) the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal behaviour (ii) the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low temperatures state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations, including the determination of Mr describe, using a kinetic-molecular model: the liquid state, melting, vaporisation, vapour pressure describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is: (i) ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide (ii) simple molecular, as in iodine (iii) giant molecular, as in silicon(IV) oxide and the graphite and diamond allotropes of carbon (iv) hydrogen-bonded, as in ice (v) metallic, as in copper

explain the strength, high melting point and electrical insulating properties of ceramics in terms of their giant molecular structure relate the uses of ceramics, based on magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide and silicon(IV) oxide, to their properties (suitable examples include furnace linings, electrical insulators, glass, crockery) describe and interpret the uses of the metals aluminium (including its alloys) and copper (including brass), in terms of their physical properties understand that materials are a finite resource and the importance of recycling processes outline the importance of hydrogen bonding to the physical properties of substances, including ice and water suggest from quoted physical data the type of structure and bonding present in a substance

- Anything that has mass and occupies space Physical states of matter

MATTER

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Fixed shape and volume

Fixed volume

No fixed volume or shape Can be compressed Can move freely in all directions

Cannot be compressed Can only be compressed slightly Only vibrate Limited movement

The state of a substance at room temperature and pressure depends on its structure and bonding.
Types of structure found in elements and compounds

Simple atomic - Helium

Giant ionic - NaCl

Giant metallic - Iron

Simple molecular - CO2

Giant molecular - Silicon(IV) oxide

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Particles in a gas move rapidly in constant random motion Collisions are perfectly elastic- meaning kinetic energy is transferred without loss from one particle to another- the total kinetic energy remains constant There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the molecules The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules The distance between the gas molecules is much greater than the diameter of the molecules so the volume of the molecules is negligible

The theoretical gas that fits this description is called an ideal gas. The gases that we encounter are called real gases which dont fit this description exactly.

Noble gases with small atoms, such as He and Ne approach ideal gas behaviour due to their small intermolecular forces.

The volume which gas occupies depends on its pressure (Pascal, Pa) its temperature (Kelvin, K)

The pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume when T is constant. The molecules are squashed closer together and hit the walls of the container more often.

The Kelvin temperature of a gas is directly related to the volume. Pressure is constant. When the temperature of a gas increases, its volume increases.

Real gases do not always obey the kinetic theory in two ways: attraction even between the widely spaced particles of gas, are not totally absent in any sample of gas. the volume of the molecules themselves cannot be ignored.

The differences are noticeable at very high pressures and very low temperatures.

Gases are described in terms of four properties: pressure (p), volume (V), temperature (T), and amount (n).

The relationship between the four properties (P, V, n, and T) of gases can be written equal to a constant R. pV = R nT Rearranging this expression gives the expression called the ideal gas law. pV = nRT R = 8.31 J K mol V = m n = number of moles of gas T = Kelvin (K) p = Pascal (Pa)

Oxygen used in hospitals and laboratories is often obtained from cylinders containing liquefied oxygen. If a cylinder contains 1.00 x 10 kg of liquid oxygen, how many liters of oxygen can be produced at 1.00 atm of pressure and 20C?

When 3.45 g of a compound was completely vaporised in a gas syringe at 26C and a pressure of 75000 Pa, 1.00 dm of vapour was produced. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the compound.

pV = nRT,

n=m Mr

So, pV = m RT Mr

Melting Particles vibrate more vigorously Forces of attraction between the particles weaken Solid changes to liquid when its temperature is sufficiently high

Freezing Particles in liquid lose kinetic energy so they do not move around so readily Experience increasing force of attraction Stop sliding past each other when the temperature is sufficiently low.

13.2

The conversion of a liquid to a gas or vapor is called vaporisation. When such a conversion occurs at the surface of a liquid that is not boiling, the process is called evaporation.

13.2

The Nature of Liquids > Evaporation

In an open container, molecules that evaporate can escape from the container.

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Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

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Evaporation
Vaporisation explained by kinetic molecular theory: Not all the molecules in a liquid possess same kinetic energy. Some molecules have above-average kinetic energy and others have belowaverage kinetic energies as a result of collisions between molecules.

Molecules

on

the

liquid

surface,

overcome attractive forces and escape into gas phase.

13.2

The Nature of Liquids > Evaporation

In a closed container, the molecules cannot escape. They collect as a vapor above the liquid. Some molecules condense back into a liquid.

Slide 22 of 33
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

End Show

Evaporation-Condensation Equilibrium
For evaporation of a liquid in a closed container: Both evaporation and condensation occur. Some molecules collide with liquid surface are recaptured by the liquid. When rate of condensation = rate of evaporation: The system is at equilibrium (at a constant T) a condition at which two opposite processes take place at the same rate.

the system is dynamic.

Vapor Pressure
Vapour pressure Is the pressure exerted by a vapour above a liquid when the liquid

and vapour are in equilibrium with each other.

The magnitude depends on nature and T of the liquid: Volatile substances readily evaporate because they have weak attractive forces between molecules. Volatile substances have high vapour pressure. Vapour pressure increases when the temperature increases because the gas particles are able to overcome intermolecular

forces of attraction more easily.

The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is the boiling point of the liquid.

The state of a substance at room temperature and pressure depends on its structure and bonding.
Types of structure found in elements and compounds

Simple atomic - Helium

Giant ionic - NaCl

Giant metallic - Iron

Simple molecular - CO2

Giant molecular - Silicon(IV) oxide

Many ionic, metallic and covalent compounds are crystalline. The regular repeating arrangement of ions, atoms or molecules are called a crystal lattice.

Ionic lattices

Ionic crystals consist of the negative and positive ions, attracted to each other. Compounds with ionic lattices are sometimes called giant ionic structure. Type of lattice formed depends on the relative sizes of the ions present.

 Ionic lattices for NaCl is cubic. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six oppositely charged chloride ions. The chloride ions are much larger than the sodium ions. The sodium ions fit into the spaces between the chloride ions so that they are as close as possible to them.

Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide has the same lattice

structure as sodium chloride. Mg ions replace sodium ions and the Oions replace the chloride ions.

The properties of ionic compounds reflect their structure as well as their bonding. a) Hard a lot of energy needed to scratch the surface because of the strong attractive forces keeping the ions together. b) Brittle c) High melting and boiling point - The strong intramolecular electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative ions, means that a large amount of heat energy is needs to be absorbed to overcome (break) the electrostatic attraction. - The melting and boiling points increase with the charge density on the ions.

Sodium chloride

Magnesium oxide

MgO has higher melting point (2852 C) than NaCl (801 C). There is greater electrostatic attraction between doubly charged ions than singly charged ions of similar size.

d)

e)

Solubility - Ionic solids will be soluble in water if the attraction between water and the ions is strong enough to overcome the electrostatic attraction between the ions in the lattice. Electrical conductivity - They only conduct electricity when molten or in solution.

Metallic lattices
The ions in metallic lattice are often packed in hexagonal layers or in a cubic arrangement. When a force is applied, the layers can slide over each other.

New metallic bonds are easily re-formed between ions in new lattice positions and the delocalised electrons. The metal now has a different shape (this explains why metals are malleable and ductile).