Variables and Hypothesis

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Can you name some things that change or has the potential to change (in quantity)? Can you name some things that are unchanging?

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Variables vs. Constant

Variable = any characteristic or quality that VARIES among the members of a particular group Constant = any characteristic or quality that is the SAME for all members of a particular group

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Types of Variables

Quantitative Variable = a variable that varies in amount or degree, but not in kind Categorical Variable = a variable that varies only in kind, not in degree or amount Independent Variable = a variable presumed to affect or influence other variable Dependent Variable (outcome variable) = a variable presumed to be affected by one or more independent variables Extraneous/Confounding variable = an independent variable that may have unintended effects on a dependent variable in a particular study
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Hypotheses

A prediction of results made before a study commences (statement of what we expect) Researchers tentative prediction (reasoned - not a wild guess!) Leads to a greater amount of important knowledge (if it is a significant and correctly stated hypothesis)
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Types of Hypotheses

Directional = a prediction about a specific nature of relationship (or difference); e.g. method A is more effective than method B Non-Directional = a prediction that a relationship (or difference) exists without specifying the exact nature (direction); e.g. there will be a difference between method A and method B (without saying which will be more effective) Null = states that there will be no significant relationship (or difference) between variables (presumed to be true until statistical evidence indicates otherwise!) Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel
(shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Reminder

Researchers do not set out to prove a hypothesis Rather, they collect data that either support or do not support it (hypothesis testing) A hypothesis is formulated based on a theory (deductive hypothesis) or the review of related literature (inductive hypothesis)
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

A Good Research Hypothesis

Sets up a testable situation Gives direction to research Identifies the variables of importance

Is grounded in theory
Is brief but with clarity
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Exception
Some studies use objectives or questions instead of hypothesis descriptive, ethnography E.g. a descriptive study of counselors salary schedule and policies Objective: DESCRIBE level of salary for state and educational levels Question: What are the kinds of salary schedules in place for counselors?

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

What are some of the dos and donts of Writing a Review of Related Literature?

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

An Example
Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men and women students reacted differently. Their research was a survey of 1,000 men and women graduate and undergraduate students. Benson and Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent book, The Lecherous Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long list of difficulties that victims have suffered.
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Another Example
The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of self-confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt, 1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner, 1990).For example, Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) noted that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professors because of the risk of harassment.
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Whats the difference between the two? Which one do you think is a good RRL?

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

What RRL is not?

NOT

a descriptive list of the information gathered

NOT

summary of one piece of literature after another

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Review of Related Literature

To demonstrate familiarity with a body of knowledge Establish credibility increase readers confidence Show the path of prior research Show how current research is linked to past work Integrate and summarize pull together and synthesize different results Point out areas where prior studies agree, where they disagree, and where major questions remain Learn from others and stimulate new ideas
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Writing a good RRL

Remember the purpose Read with a purpose Write with a purpose

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Work toward a specific focus

The review of literature should be like a discussion with a friend concerning the studies, research reports, and writings that bear directly on your own effort. Be very clear in your thinking.

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Organize a plan

Have an outline (guiding concept), for which the best guide is the problem itself.

Begin the discussion from a broad perspective and narrow to the specific problem.

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Stress Relatedness (relevance)

Remind the reader constantly of how the literature you are discussing is related to the problem.

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Review the Literature, Dont Copy it!

Review the Literature; Dont Copy It! More important than what the study says is what you say about the study.

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Summarize your thoughts and ideas

Continue asking the question, "What does it all mean?" and continue searching for relatedness. Keep your own voice!

Be careful with paraphrasing

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

When to stop?

Circular pattern (same arguments, same findings, etc.) Rough draft (revise, revise, revise) Others feedback Models

Old and new references

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

The Process
Secondary Sources
Formulating Search Terms

General References (Virtual Library, EBSCO, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, etc.)

Obtaining and Reading the Primary Sources

Primary Sources
Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Note Cards

Problem (topic) Hypothesis Participants Procedures Findings Conclusions

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Work out
1.

2.

3.

the comparison the writer establishes in the review the sequence to his review (why that sequence?) what the writer's own perspective is

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)

Take note of
1.

the use the writer makes of each of the sources he refers to how, in his language particularly, he avoids a "black and white", right/wrong type of judgment of the positions he reviews

2.

Dr. Shahid Jan Kakakhel (shahidjan@awkum.edu.pk)