The Muscular-Skeletal System

Textbook Chapter 35

Four Types of Tissues

Epithelial Tissue: covers the outside of the body and lines

the organs and cavities within the body Connective Tissue: binds, supports, and connects other tissues (ie. blood, tendons, ligaments, bones) Muscle Tissue: consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to motor neurons; muscle fiber = one cell Nervous Tissue: senses stimuli and transmits signals

Different Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle:
Attached to the skeleton (voluntary)

Contain multiple nuclei Have a striated pattern consisting of sarcomeres (myofibrils

are parallel)
Cardiac Muscle:
Heart muscles that contract to pump blood (involuntary)
Irregularly striated High duration and continual use Initiates own contractions through the SA and AV nodes

Smooth Muscle:
Contract to move materials throughout the body Slow and sustained Not striated Line hollow organs

Example: digestive muscles move food through peristaltic

Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle Hierarchy

Skeletal muscle is characterized by a hierarchy of

smaller and smaller units One muscle, myofiber or myocyte is covered by epimysium (connective tissue) One muscle consists of hundreds or thousands of muscle fibers (one muscle fiber is one cell) Muscle fibers come in bundles called fasciles, which are surrounded by perimysium (connective tissue) Each muscle fiber is a long cell that runs parallel to the muscle The functional contractile unit of a muscle fiber are the myofibrils The functional contractile unit of myofibrils are sarcomeres

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Each muscle fiber contains many nuclei and is covered by a

capillary-lined membrane, called the sarcolemma Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm of muscle fibers The T-tubules are in constant contact with the extracellular fluid, and conduct the action potentials into the fiber interior The sarcoplasmic reticulum is derived from the ER. The sarcoplasmic reticulum transports materials throughout the muscle fiber and releases Ca2+ The sarcosomes are the mitochondrion of muscle fiber and produce ATP energy for the muscle fiber The myofibrils are the functional unit of a muscle fiber. They are long bundles of the protein actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments) that contract Myofibrils are composed of subunits called sarcomeres, which give skeletal muscle is striation. Sarcomere units are separated by Z lines. Sarcomeres are composed of myosin suspended between

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Sarcomere Structure
Sarcomeres are composed of myosin proteins

suspended between actin proteins Each individual sarcomere is separated by Zlines, which are made of titin (connectin) and anchor actin proteins I-band is the zone of actin not superimposed by myosin A-band is the whole length of a single actin H-band is the zone of myosin not superimposed by myosin A contraction is the result of myosin pulling actin filaments closer together

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Muscle Stimulation Mechanism

1.

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Muscle contraction of several fibers is stimulated by a motor neuron Acetylcholine is released from the synaptic bulb of the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft Acetylcholine binds to the sodium potassium pumps on the motor end plate of the muscle fiber The sodium potassium pumps depolarize the environment This triggers a self-propogating action potential down the membrane of the muscle fiber Acetylcholinesterase on the membrane hydrolyzes the left-over acetylcholine to prevent over-stimulation The action potential travels down the membrane and then into the T-tubules In the T-tubules, the action potential activates voltagegated calcium channels that leads into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Sliding Filament Mechanism

Each actin filament has binding sites that the myosin head attaches to Tropomyosin covers those binding sites to prevent the unnecessary

binding of myosin and actin

1. 2. 3. 4.

Calcium ions released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to the troponin complex, which is also located on the actin filament. The troponin complex changes configuration and moves the tropomyosin aside, uncovering the binding sites on the actin Myosin heads in their high energy state bind to myosin binding sites on the actin, forming a crossbridge attachment After binding, the myosin head changes from its high energy configuration to its low energy configuration, which causes the myosin head to bend and pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere ATP energy is used to unbind the two filaments and return myosin heads to its high energy straight configuration The binding, flexing, and detaching process pulls the actin filaments closer together, which shortens the length of the sarcomere, therefore

5. 6.

Sliding Filament Mechanism

Complete Contraction Mechanism

Nervous Control of Muscle

Muscle contraction is stimulated by acetylcholine

released from motor neurons A motor neuron stimulates multiple fibers, motor unit The strength of muscle contraction depends on the number of fibers contracting and rates at which each fiber contracts The strength of muscle contraction also depends on the number of motor neurons stimulated and the frequency of their action potentials Teatanus is a state of smooth and sustained contraction produced when motor neurons deliver a volley of action potentials

Hydrostatic Skeleton
A hydrostatic skeleton provides locomotion

through the use of peristaltic movements and the use of fluid The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle builds up hydraulic pressure in the body cavity The hydraulic pressure is used to propel the organism forward Found in cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, annelids

Hydrostatic Skeleton Movement

Exoskeleton
Exoskeletons are hardened and segmented

encasements on an animals outer surface to which internal muscles are attached Exoskeletons are strong and flexible Exoskeletons are made of chitin Found in arthropods and mollusks

Endoskeleton
The endoskeleton consists of hard supporting

elements, such as bone, located under soft tissue (muscle) Some bones are fused, others are connected at joints Found in chordates

Functions of the Human Skeletal System

Support: vertebral column helps maintain

posture) Protection: the thoracic cage protects internal organs Movement: antagonistic muscles on skeletons contract Storage: calcium, phosphorus, other minerals, fats Blood cell formation: bone marrow produces red and white blood cells

Axial Skeleton
The central skeleton Responsible for mostly

support and protection Skull:

Cranium: protects brain Sinal Cavity: warms and

moistens air
Vertebral column:

protects spine and is segmented by intervertebral discs Thoracic Cage: protects major organs
Made of sternum, ribs,

thoracic vertebrae

Appendicular Skeleton
The skeleton that forms the appendages

Responsible for mostly movement, storage, and

blood cell formation, with the exception of the pelvis Limbs Pelvis
Supports the entire upper body Protects reproductive organs, bladder, and large

intestine

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Bone
Responsible for support, movement, storage, blood

cell formation, and protection Osteocytes are living and mature bone cells Compact (cortical) bone is mainly responsible for strength, support, and storage of minerals
Has concentric rings, osteons, of hydroxyapitite Hydroxyapitite is a salt made of calcium and phosphorus

and gives the bone its strength Stores calcium and phosphorus through hydroxyapitite
Spongy (cancellous) bone is responsible for most

metabolic activity in bones and growth

Usually found at the ends of long bones Contains SOME red bone marrow (MOST are in central

cavity) Blood vessels and nerves run through the Haversian canal

Bone
Bone has a semi-hollow space in the middle

called the central cavity The central cavity is mostly responsible for blood cell production and fat storage
Contains most of the red and yellow bone marrow

Red bone marrow produces red and white blood

cells Yellow bone marrow stores fats and can be readily converted into red bone marrow when blood levels are dangerously low

Bone Structure

Bone Remodeling and Growth

Bone growth and remodeling is mostly regulated by

osteoblasts and osteoclasts Osteoblasts secrete collagen on top of bone

Collagen hardens into hydroxyapitite Osteoblasts grow bone by increasing width Eventually die by apoptosis or change into osteocytes Work harder when there is stress on bones

Osteoclasts break down bone tissue

Osteoclasts secrete enzymes, hormones, and acid that

dissolve bone Calcium and phosphorus are released Osteoclasts work in response to PTH
The process of removing and building bone is called bone

remodeling Osteoblasts grow bones in terms of width, but bones grow in terms of length through the epiphyseal plates (growth plates) found in the spongy bone

Bone Remodeling Video

Joints
Joints cushion and hold connected bones together Responsible for movement by allowing for mobility
Reduces friction of rubbing bones

Joint cells are called chondrocytes

Secrete glycoproteins and collagen that reduces friction

Four main types of joints:

Fused joints: do not move and connect bone (cranium) Pivot joints: allow for pivoting circular motion (vertebrae) Hinge joints: allow for 180 degree movement (elbow) Ball and socket joints: allow for 360 degree movement (femur)

Joints can also be classified on their mobility:

Synarthroses: immovable joints (skull) Amphiarthroses: slightly moveable joints (vertebrae) Diarthroposes: freely moveable joints (limbs)

Joint Types

Connective Tissue of Bone and Muscle

Responsible for movement

Ligaments
Attaches bone to bone Dense connective tissue

Tendons
Attaches muscle to bone Cords of dense connective tissue