M2X8629 Lecture 5 Research Methodologies

What is research?

People undertake research in order to find things out in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge (Jankowicz, 1995). Hussey and Hussey (1997, p. 1) define research as enquiry and investigation [that]is systematic and methodical[and] increases knowledge.

What is research methodology?

Research methodology refers to the step-by-step research process; the selection of the most efficient ways to collect, analyse and present data whilst maintaining academic rigour. an operational framework within which the facts are placed so that their meaning may be seen more clearly. Leedy (1989, cited by Remenyi et al, 1998, p. 28)

Figure 1

The research process

Source: Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, Research Methods in Business, 4th Edition Pearson Education Limited 2007

Figure 1

The research process (Continued)

Source: Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, Research Methods in Business, 4th Edition Pearson Education Limited 2007

So research has a purpose

There are three kinds of research purpose:

Exploratory research is often undertaken in order to collect

preliminary data to help clarify or identify a problem, rather than for generating problem solutions. The purpose is to make an initial assessment of the nature of a problem, so that more detailed research work can be planned appropriately.
Descriptive research aims to provide the researcher with a better

understanding of a particular issue or problem. For example, assessing the search behaviour of users of a particular website and the reasons behind the behaviour exhibited.
Explanatory (causal or predictive) research seeks to establish

cause and effect relationships. The emphasis here is on studying a situation or problem in order to explain the relationships between variables.

What is the difference between primary and secondary research?

Primary research (or field research) involves the collection of original (new) data by the researcher to address a specific problem. Secondary research (or desk research) is based on data that has been collected by somebody else for some other purpose (and for this reason, it may not precisely meet the needs of the secondary user). However, it can help the researcher gain understanding of an issue, and formulate and generate ideas, which can later be refined by carrying out primary research.

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?

Qualitative research involves the collection of (soft) data that are open to interpretation, for example, peoples opinions which cannot be generalised in numerical terms. Quantitative research research that produces statistics (hard data). This usually involves surveys of large numbers of respondents.

What is the difference between a longitudinal and a cross-sectional study?

Longitudinal research extends over a substantial period of time and involves studying changes over time. Cross-sectional research takes a 'snapshot' of a situation in time.

Credibility of research findings

Research findings must be credible. The three tests of credibility are

Reliability Validity Generalisability

1. Reliability

Reliability is concerned with the findings of the research. If a research finding can be repeated (replicable), it is reliable. Threats to reliability (Robson, 1993) include:
Subject (respondent) error

Subject (respondent) bias

Observer (interviewer) error Observer (interviewer) bias

2. Validity

Validity is the extent to which the research findings accurately represent what is really happening in the situation. Research errors can undermine validity.
Are you asking the right questions? Are you asking the right people? Are you measuring what you should be measuring?

3. Generalisability

Generalisability refers to the extent to which you can come to conclusions about one thing (often a population) based on information about another (often a sample). Are your research results applicable in other settings/contexts? This is a particular worry if you are conducting case study research - is your organisation markedly different in some way?

Philosophy Positivism Deductive Experiment Cross sectional Sampling Questionnaires Secondary data Observations Interviews Longitudinal Action Research Inductive Time horizon Survey Document Analysis Strategy Approach

Case Study

The research onion

Dr Nik Whitehead

Phenomenographical Data collection method

14

Based upon Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2007

Research philosophies (or paradigms, epistemology)

Epistemology, your research philosophy, depends on the way that you think about the development of knowledge Epistemology asks the question how do we know what we know? Two main research philosophies:
Positivism
Phenomenography

Positivism

Positivists believe that knowledge we may gain is based on the observation or experience of real phenomena in an objective and real world (Cornford and Smithson, 2006) Positivism contends there are single true answers to questions, which can be found by carefully applying scientific procedures, such as experiments.

Positivism

The positivist approach seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena with little regard to the subjective state. Thus logical reasoning is applied to the research so that precision, objectivity and rigour replace hunches, experience and intuition as a means of investigating the research problem. (Collis & Hussey, 2003, p. 52) This view has come under considerable criticism in recent years from researchers who argue that research is heavily influenced by a persons world-view or perception.

Phenomenography

The phenomenological paradigm is concerned with understanding human behaviour. This approach stresses the subjective aspects of human activity by focusing on the meaning, rather than measurement of social phenomena. (Collis and Hussey, 2003, p. 53) Reality is socially constructed, based on participants perceptions, and needs to be understood rather than trying to generate facts (Saunders et al, 2007) We all see the world through our own conceptual goggles, so rather than attempting to find single true answers to our focus questions, we are attempting to build knowledge from event(s) and/or object(s), based upon the world as we see it.

Alternative terms for the main research paradigms

Positivistic Quantitative Objectivist Scientific Experimentalist Traditionalist Phenomenographical Qualitative Subjectivist Humanistic Interpretivist

Features of the main research paradigms

Positivistic
Tends to produce quantitative data Uses large samples Concerned with testing theory (deductive approach) Data is highly specific & precise The location is artificial Reliability is high Validity is low Generalises from sample to population

Phenomenographical
Tends to produce qualitative data Uses small samples Concerned with generating theory (inductive approach) Data is rich and subjective The location is natural Reliability is low Validity is high Generalises from one setting to another

Some associated methods of the main paradigms

Positivistic
Structured questionnaire surveys Structured interview surveys Experiments

Phenomenographical
Action research Case studies Document analysis Unstructured interviews Focus groups

Philosophy Positivism Deductive Experiment Cross sectional Sampling Questionnaires Secondary data Observations Interviews Longitudinal Action Research Inductive Time horizon Survey Document Analysis Strategy Approach

Case Study

The research onion

Dr Nik Whitehead

Phenomenography Data collection method

22

Based upon Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2007

Research approaches

Two major types:

Deductive research (linked to positivism) Inductive research (linked to phenomenography)

Relates to the extent to which you are clear about the theory at the beginning of your research

The deductive approach

The deductive approach aims to test theory This involves developing a theory and hypothesis, and designing a research strategy to test that hypothesis The outcome will be a confirmation or modification of the theory
e.g. You hypothesise that your new piece of software is better

(faster, more usable, has more features) than an existing piece of software

Deduction emphasises

Scientific principles Moving from theory to data The need to explain causal relationships between variables The collection of quantitative data A highly structured approach Researcher independence of what is being researched Large sample size to allow generalisations

The inductive approach

The inductive approach aims to build theory This involves collecting data, analysing it, then developing theory The outcome will be to add to the body of knowledge in that area
e.g. You develop a description of how businesses use Facebook

for advertising based upon a survey of local businesses

Induction emphasises
Gaining an understanding of the meanings humans attach to events A close understanding of the research context The collection of qualitative data A more flexible structure to permit changes of research emphasis as the research progresses A realisation that the researcher is part of the research process Less concern with the need to generalise

Which is best?

Deduction:
Is suitable when your research topic has a wealth of literature from

which you can define a theoretical framework and a hypothesis Is quicker, often based on one take

Induction:
Is suitable when the topic is new, has much debate and/or there is

little existing literature Takes longer to gather the data

Coming Soon

Next lecture: Research Strategies

Homework:

Dr Nik Whitehead

29