Topography, Landforms, and Geomorphology

Topography, Landforms, and Geomorphology
Designed to meet South Carolina Department of Education 2005 Science Academic Standards
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Topography, Landforms, and Geomorphology: Basic Definitions (slide (slide 6) 6) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Topography (slide (slide #) #) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Landforms (slide (slide ") ") (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Landforms and Scale: $r%stal &rders of 'elief (slides (slides ( 1)) 1)) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Geomorphology (slide (slide 11) 11) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) *niformitarianism (slide (slide 1+) 1+) (Standards: 3 3,", 3,", " 3,#) 3,#) $onstr%cti-e and Destr%cti-e .rocesses (slides (slides 13 , 1/, 1/, and 1!) 1!) (Standards: ! 3,1) 3,1) Genetic Landform $lassification (slide (slide 16) 16) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Landforms: (slides (slides 1# 11") 11") (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Tectonic Landforms (slide (slide 1#) 1#) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) &rogenesis (slide (slide 1") 1") (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#) 3,#) Deformation (slide (slide 1() 1() (Standards: " 3,#) 3,#) 0olding (slides (slides +), +), +1, +1, and ++) ++) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 0a%lting (slides (slides +3 , +/, +/, and +!) +!) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 0ract%res and 1oints (slide (slide +6) +6) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 1ointing (slide (slide +#) +#) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Domes and Basins (slide (slide +") +") (Standards: " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 2orst and Gra3en: Basin and 'ange (slide (slide +() +() (Standards: ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'ift 4alleys (slide (slide 3)) 3)) (Standards: ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5a6or 5o%ntain 'anges of the 7orld (slide (slide 31) 31) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, " 3,() 3,() 'oc8y 5o%ntains (slide (slide 3+) 3+) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9ppalachian 5o%ntains (slide (slide 33) 33) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9ndes 5o%ntains (slide (slide 3/) 3/) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() :%ropean 9lps (slide (slide 3!) 3!) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 2imalayan (slide (slide 36) 36) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,()
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4olcanic Landforms: :;tr%si-e <gneo%s (slides (slides 3# /!) /!) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) $inder $ones (slide (slide 3") 3") (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Shield 4olcanoes (slide (slide 3() 3() (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Strato 4olcanoes (slide (slide /)) /)) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $aldera (slide (slide /1) /1) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() La-a Domes (slide (slide /+) /+) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 4olcanic 2ot Spots (slide (slide /3) /3) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 4olcanic =ec8s (slide (slide //) //) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 0lood Basalts (slide (slide /!) /!) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 4olcanic Landforms: <ntr%si-e <gneo%s (slides (slides /6 !)) !)) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Batholiths (slide (slide /#) /#) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() .l%tons (slide (slide /") /") (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Sills, Laccoliths, Di8es (slide /() (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5onadnoc8s (slide (slide !)) !)) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'i-er Systems and 0l%-ial Landforms (slides (slides !1 6() 6() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'i-ers Systems and 0l%-ial .rocesses (slide (slide !+) !+) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Longit%dinal .rofile and 7atersheds (slides (slides !3 and !/) !/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() So%th $arolina 'i-er and Basins (slide (slide !!) !!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, " 3,() 3,() Dams and La8es (slide (slide !6) !6) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5o%ntain Streams (slide (slide !#) !#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Braided (slide (slide !") !") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5eandering (slide (slide !() !() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() :ntrenched 5eanders (slide (slide 6)) 6)) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9na3ranching (slide (slide 61) 61) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,()
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'i-er cont, (slides (slides !1 6() 6() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Straight (slide (slide 6+) 6+) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 0lood .lains (slide (slide 63, 63, 6/, 6/, and 6!) 6!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'i-er Terraces (slide (slide 66) 66) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 7aterfalls (slide (slide 6#) 6#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9ll%-ial 0ans (slide (slide 6") 6") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() G%llys (slide (slide 6() 6() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() >arst Landforms (slides (slides #) #!) #!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $a-erns (slide (slide #1) #1) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Sin8holes (slide (slide #+) #+) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Disappearing Streams (slide (slide #3) #3) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Springs (slide (slide #/) #/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() To?ers (slide (slide #!) #!) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9eolian Landforms (slides (slides #6 "+) "+) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() D%nes (slides (slides ## and #") #") (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Loess (slide (slide #() #() (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() @ardang (slide (slide ")) ")) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'i-erine D%nes and Sand Sheets (slide (slide "1) "1) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $arolina Bays (slide (slide "+) "+) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $oastal Landforms (slides (slides "3 "#) "#) (Standards: 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Littoral Aone (slide (slide "/) "/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Beaches (slide (slide "!) "!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Barrier <slands (slide (slide "6) "6) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Beach 'idges (slide (slide "#) "#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Spits (slide (slide "") "") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Deltas (slides (slides "( and ()) ()) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,()
$oastal Landforms $ont, (slides (slides "" (/) (/) (Standards: 3 3, 3, ! 3, 3, " 3) 3) Sea $liffs (slide (slide (1) (1) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Sea 9rch (slide (slide (+) (+) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 7a-e $%t Scarps (slide (slide (3) (3) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5arine Terraces (slide (slide (/) (/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,/, 3,/, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $ontinental Shelf and Slope (slide (slide (!) (!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() &cean Basin (slide (slide (6) (6) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 93yssal .lains, Seamo%nts, Trenches (slide (slide (#) (#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 5id ocean 'idge (slide (slide (") (") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 'ift Aone (slide (slide (() (() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() &cean 0loor Topography and 0eat%res (slide (slide 1))) 1))) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,+, 3,+, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Glacial Landforms (slides (slides 1)1 11") 11") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() <ce Sheets and 9lpine Glaciers (slide (slide 1)3) 1)3) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() <ce 0ield and <ce $aps (slide (slide 1)/) 1)/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() .iedmont Glacier (slide slide 1)!) ) (Standards: 3 3,!, , 3 3,6, , ! 3,1, , ! 3,!, , " 3,#, , " 3,() ) ( 1)! 3,! 3,6 3,1 3,! 3,# 3,( Tidal Glaciers and <ce3ergs (slide (slide 1)6) 1)6) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Glacial * shaped 4alleys (slide (slide 1)#) 1)#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 06ords (slide (slide 1)") 1)") (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 2anging 4alleys (slide (slide 1)() 1)() (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() $irB%es and $irB%e Glaciers (slide (slide 11)) 11)) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() 9rC 9rCtes, 2orns, and $ols (slide (slide 111) 111) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Lateral and 5edial 5oraines (slide (slide 11+) 11+) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Terminal and 'ecessional 5oraines (slide slide 113) ) (Standards: 3 3,!, , 3 3,6, , ! 3,1, , " 3,#, , " ( 113 3,! 3,6 3,1 3,# 3,() 3,() .aternoster La8es (slide (slide 11/) 11/) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() >ettles (slide (slide 11!) 11!) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, ! 3,!, 3,!, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() :rratics (slide (slide 116) 116) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() Dr%mlins (slide (slide 11#) 11#) (Standards: 3 3,!, 3,!, 3 3,6, 3,6, ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() &%t?ash .lains and :s8ers (slide slide 11") ) (Standards: 3 3,!, , 3 3,6, ( 11" 3,! 3,6, 3 3,", 3,", ! 3,1, 3,1, " 3,#, 3,#, " 3,() 3,() So%th $arolina :arth Science :d%cation Standards Grades 3, !, " (slides (slides 11(, 11(, 1+), 1+), and 1+1) 1+1) 'eso%rces and 'eferences (slide (slide 1++) 1++)
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Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#
$asic Definitions
Topography refers to the ele-ation and relief of the :arthDs s%rface, Landforms are the topographic feat%res on the :arthDs s%rface, Geomorphology is the st%dy of earth s%rface processes and landforms,
The maps a o(e represent the same area on Earth)s surface and they sho* three different *ays *e can (ie* landforms+ The image on the far left is a clip from a topographic ele(ation map, the image in the middle is an infrared aerial photo, and the image on the right is the geologic interpretation of surface sediments and geomorphology+ This location is interesting ecause it contains elements of a natural and human altered physical en(ironment+ The la,e in the image, -coded lue in the topographic and geology map, and lac, in the infrared aerial photo. *as formed y artificial damming a stream the flo*s through this landscape+ 6
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Topography
Topography is a term used to descri e the Earth)s surface+ Topography includes a (ariety of different features, collecti(ely referred to as landforms+ Topography is measured y the differences in ele(ation across the earth)s surface+ Differences et*een high and lo* ele(ation are referred to as changes in relief+ Scientist e/amine topography using a (ariety of different sources ranging from paper topographic maps to digital ele(ation models de(eloped using speciali0ed geographic information systems commonly referred to as a G1S+
ge d 3i t on dm e 4i
n ai l 4 al t as o C
ue l $
South Carolina)s ele(ation relief ranges from ",520 feet in the $lue 3idge 3egion to 0 feet along the Coastal 4lain+ The ri(ers dissect the topography and drain do*n&slope from head*aters in the mountainous $lue 3idge and 4iedmont, into the allu(ial (alleys of the Coastal 4lain efore draining into the Atlantic 5cean+
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Landforms
Landforms are the indi(idual topographic features e/posed on the Earth)s surface+ Landforms (ary in si0e and shape and include features such as small cree,s or sand dunes, or large features such as the 6ississippi 3i(er or $lue 3idge 6ountains+ Landforms de(elop o(er a range of different time&scales+ Some landforms de(elop rather 7uic,ly -o(er a fe* seconds, minutes, or hours., such as a landslide, *hile others may in(ol(e many millions of years to form, such as a mountain range+ Landform de(elopment can e relati(ely simple and in(ol(e only a fe* processes, or (ery comple/ and in(ol(e a com ination of multiple processes and agents+ Landforms are dynamic features that are continually affected y a (ariety of earth&surface processes including *eathering, erosion, and deposition+ Earth scientists *ho study landforms pro(ide decision ma,ers *ith information to ma,e natural resource, cultural management, and infrastructure decisions, that affect humans and the en(ironment+ Ta le 3oc, 6ountain is a metamorphosed igneous intrusion e/posed y millions of years of *eathering and erosion in South Carolina)s 4iedmont 3egion+
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4hoto Source% SCGS
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Landforms and Scale% Crustal 5rders of 3elief
8irst 5rder of 3elief%
The roadest landform scale is di(ided into continental landmasses, *hich include all of the crust a o(e sea&le(el -#09 Earth)s surface., and ocean asins, *hich include the crustal areas elo* sea&le(el -:09 of Earth)s surface.
Second 5rder of 3elief%
The second order of relief includes regional&scale continental features such as mountain ranges, plateaus, plains, and lo*lands+ E/amples include the 3oc,y 6ountains, Atlantic Coastal 4lain, and Ti etan 4lateau+ 6a;or ocean asin features including continental shel(es, slopes, a yssal plains, mid& ocean ridges, and trenches are all second&order relief landforms+
Third 5rder of 3elief%
The third order of relief includes indi(idual landform features that collecti(ely ma,e up the larger second&order relief landforms+ E/amples include indi(idual (olcanoes, glaciers, (alleys, ri(ers, flood plains, la,es, marine terraces, eaches, and dunes+ Each ma;or landform categori0ed *ithin the third order of relief may also contain many smaller features or different types of a single feature+ 8or e/ample, although a flood plain is an indi(idual landform it may also contain a mosaic of smaller landforms including point ars, o/ o* la,es, and natural le(ees+ 3i(ers, although a single landform, may e classified y a (ariety of channel types including straight, meandering, or raided+ (
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Crustal 5rders of 3elief

11+ Second 5rder of 3elief% 6a;or Continental and 5cean Landforms
1+ 8irst 5rder or 3elief% Continental Landmasses and 5cean $asins
111+ Third 5rder of 3elief% Genetic Landform 8eatures
$eaches
3i(ers and 8lood 4lains
6ountains
1mages and 4hotos% SCGS
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1)
Geomorphology
Geo&morph&ology originates from Gree,% Geo meaning the <Earth=, morph meaning its <shape=, and ology refers to <the study of=+ Scientists *ho study landforms are Geomorphologists+
Geomorphology is the process& ased study of landforms+

Geomorphology defines the processes and conditions that influence landform de(elopment, and the physical, morphological, and structural characteristics of landforms+ Geomorphologists *ho study landforms often see, to ans*er fundamental 7uestions that help them study landforms, such as%

>hat is the physical form or shape of the landform? >hat is the ele(ation and topographic relief of the landform? @o* did the landform originate? >hat is the distri ution of the landform and *here else does it occur? Are their any patterns associated *ith the landform or topography? >hat is the significance of the landform in relation to other elements of the landscape or en(ironment? @as the landform or geomorphology een altered y humans? Does the landform or geomorphology affect humans?
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Standard% #&#+' Standard% '&#+:
Aniformitarianism
Aniformitarianism is a common theory held y earth scientists that states <the present is the ,ey to the past=+ Aniformitarianism implies that the processes currently shaping the Earth)s topography and landforms are the same processes as those *hich occurred in the past+ $y studying geomorphology, *e are etter a le to interpret the origin of landforms and infer their future e(olution *ithin the landscape+ Such applications are especially important for predicting, pre(enting, and mitigating natural ha0ards impact to humans, and managing our natural resources for future generations+
The t*o images elo* illustrate the concept of uniformitarianism+ 5n the left is an imprint of ripple mar,s in sandstone, similar current ripple forms in the right image+ 1f the present is the ,ey to the past, *e can infer that the sandstone roc, formed in a lo* energy, flu(ial en(ironment similar to the conditions in the right image+
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Standard% 5&#+!
Constructi(e and Destructi(e 4rocesses
Constructi(e processes uild landforms through tectonic and depositional processes+

Tectonic processes incl%de mo-ements at plate 3o%ndaries, earthB%a8es, orogeny, deformation, and -olcanic acti-ity, Deposition is the acc%m%lation or accretion of ?eathered and eroded materials,
Destructi(e processes rea, do*n landforms through *eathering, erosion, and mass *asting+

>eathering is the disintegration of roc8s 3y mechanical, chemical, and 3iological agents, Erosion is the remo-al and transportation of ?eathered material 3y ?ater, ?ind, ice, or gra-ity, 6ass *asting is the rapid do?n slope mo-ement of materials 3y gra-ity,
5ther Agents and 4rocesses that Affect Landform De(elopment

Climate: temperat%re, precipitation, ?ater cycle, atmospheric conditions Time: fast and slo? rates of change 4eople% infl%ences on nat%ral reso%rces and earth s%rface processes
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Constructi(e 4rocesses
Constructi(e processes are responsi le for physically uilding or
constructing certain landforms+ Constructi(e processes include tectonic and depositional processes and their landforms+
Tectonic Landforms are created 3y massi-e earth mo-ements d%e to tectonic and
-olcanic acti-ity, and incl%de landforms s%ch as% mountains, rift (alleys, (olcanoes, and intrusi(e igneous landforms
Depositional Landforms are prod%ced from the deposition of ?eathered and eroded
s%rface materials, Depositional landforms incl%de feat%res s%ch as: eaches, arrier islands, spits, deltas, flood plains, dunes, allu(ial fans, and glacial moraines+
The Strom oli Bolcano erupting off the coast of Sicily in the 6editerranean Sea+ 8loodplain deposits at the confluence of 6ississippi and Ar,ansas 3i(ers+
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So%rce: ?i8imedia commons $opyright EGoogle :arth +)) Ta le of Contents
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Destructi(e 4rocesses
Destructi(e processes create landforms through *eathering and erosion
of surface materials facilitated y *ater, *ind, ice, and gra(ity+ 6ass& *asting e(ents occur in areas *here *eathering and erosion is accelerated+
>eathering is the disintegration and decomposition of roc8 at or near the :arthDs s%rface 3y mechanical, chemical, or iological ?eathering processes, Erosion is the remo-al and transportation of ?eathered or %n?eathered materials 3y *ater, *ind, ice, and gra(ity+ 6ass&>asting is a rapid period of ?eathering and erosion that remo-es and transports materials -ery B%ic8ly and is often triggered 3y an en-ironmental stim%li, 5ass ?asting incl%des roc, falls, landslides, de ris and mud flo*s, slumps, and creep+ Landforms formed y destructi(e processes include ri(er and stream
(alleys, *aterfalls, glacial (alleys, ,arst landscapes, coastal cliffs, and *a(e&cut scarps+
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Genetic Landform Classification
The genetic landform classification system groups landforms y the dominant set of geomorphic processes responsi le for their formation+ This includes the follo*ing processes and associated landforms%

Tectonic Landforms E/trusi(e 1gneous Landforms 1ntrusi(e 1gneous Landforms 8lu(ial Landforms Carst Landforms Aeolian Landforms Coastal Landforms 5cean 8loor Topography Glacial Landforms
>ithin each of these genetic classifications, the resulting landforms are a product of either constructi(e and destructi(e processes or a com ination of oth+ Landforms are also influenced y other agents or processes including time, climate, and human acti(ity+
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Tectonic Landforms
8olding 8aulting 8ractures Domes and $asins @orst and Gra en 3ift Balleys
6ountains% 5rogenesis and Deformation
6a;or 6ountain 3anges% 3oc,y 6ountains Appalachian 6ountains @imalayan 6ountains Andes 6ountains
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5rogenesis
&rogenesis is the thic8ening of the continental cr%st and the 3%ilding of mo%ntains o-er millions of years and it translates from Gree8 as F3irth of mo%ntainsG, (oros is the Gree8 ?ord for mo%ntain), &rogeny encompasses all aspects of mo%ntain formation incl%ding plate tectonics, terrane accretion, regional metamorphism, thr%sting, folding, fa%lting, and igneo%s intr%sions, &rogenesis is primarily co-ered in the plate tectonics section of the earth science ed%cation materials, 3%t it is important to re-ie? for the landform section 3eca%se it incl%des deformation processes responsi3le for mo%ntain 3%ilding,
South Carolina)s $lue 3idge 6ountains and 1nner 4iedmont 3egion *ere formed y multiple orogenic e(ents *hen roc,s forming South Carolina *ere uplifted, metamorphosed, folded, faulted, and thrusted+ 6ore information on the $lue ridge mountains is included on the section for the Appalachian 6ountain 3ange+
4hoto courtesy of SCGS, SCDD3
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Deformation
Deformation processes deform or alter the earth)s crust y e/treme stress or pressure in the crust and mantle+ 6ost deformation occurs along plate margins from plate tectonic mo(ements+ 8olding and faulting are the most common deformation processes+
8olding occurs *hen roc,s are compressed such that the layers uc,le and fold+ 8aulting occurs *hen roc,s fracture under the accumulation of e/treme stress created y compression and e/tensional forces+
$oth of these folds are in iotite&rich gneiss from the South Carolina 4iedmont, the areas *here the folds are most pronounced contain greater amounts of 7uart0 from the granitic composition of the roc,+ The scale card sho*s us that the roc, on the left contains smaller folds than the roc, on the right+
4hoto% South Carolina Geological Sur(ey
1(
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8olding
8olding occurs *hen roc,s are compressed or deformed and they uc,le under the stress+ The diagram elo* is a cartoon illustrating ho* roc,s fold+
The crest of the fold, *here the roc, layers slope do*n*ard form the anticline+ The (alley of the fold *here the layers slope to*ard the lo*er a/is form the syncline+
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8olding
Anticlines and synclines can ta,e on slightly different geometries depending on the compressional forces that form them+ Bery intense compressional forces form tight isoclinal folds, less intense compressional forces produce open folds+ 8olds can e asymmetric, upright, o(erturned, or cur(ed+ A fold pushed all the *ay o(er onto its side is called recum ent+ T*isting or tilting during roc, deformation and compression can cause folds to form at different angles+ Some folds are (ery small and can e (ie*ed in hand held specimens, *hile other folds are as large as a mountain and can e (ie*ed from aerial photos+
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8olding
Syncline (alley et*een mountain pea,s+
Anticline e/posed along DG 3oute 2# near $utler DG+ The man in the ottom of the photo helps sho* the scale of the folds+
Copyright FASGS
Copyright F6ichael Le;eune
5(erturned folds in the Ta le 3oc, gneiss in South Carolina)s piedmont+ The roc, hammer in the photo is used for scale+
3ecum ent folds in limestone+
SCGS photo
Copyright F6arli 6iller, Ani(ersity of 5regon
++
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8aulting

8aulting occurs *hen the roc,s fail under deformation processes+ A fault is a planar discontinuity along *hich displacement of the roc,s occurs+ There are four asic types of faulting% normal, re(erse, stri,e&slip, and o li7ue+
Dormal
!+ 2+ Dormal% roc,s a o(e the fault plane, or hanging *all, mo(e do*n relati(e to the roc,s elo* the fault plane, or foot*all+ 3e(erse% roc,s a o(e the hanging *all mo(es up relati(e to the foot*all Stri,e&slip% roc,s on either side of a nearly (ertical fault plane mo(e hori0ontally 5 li7ue&slip% normal or re(erse faults ha(e some stri,e&slip mo(ement, or *hen stri,e&slip faults ha(e normal or re(erse mo(ement
Stri,e&Slip
3e(erse
#+ "+
Geologists recogni0e faults y loo,ing for off&set roc, layers in outcrops+ 8aults may also e recogni0ed y de ris, reccia, clay, or roc, fragments that rea, apart or are pul(eri0ed during the mo(ement of the roc,s along the fault plane+ 8ault Hgouge) is a term used to descri e the material produced y faulting+ 1f a fault plane is e/posed, there may e groo(es, striations -scratches., and slic,enslides -symmetrical fractures. that sho* e(idence of the roc,s mo(ement+ Large fault systems, such as the San Andreas fault can e seen from aerial imagery+
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8aulting
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8aulting
The San Andreas fault is the largest fault system in Dorth America and it runs for nearly :'0 miles through *estern California and in some places the *idth of the fault 0one is E0 miles+ The San Andreas fault is a transform oundary et*een the 4acific 4late on the *est and the Dorth American 4late to the east+ The 4acific 4late is mo(ing north*est*ard against the Dorth American 4late+ This motion generates earth7ua,es along the fault that pose significant ha0ards to people and alters the physical landscape+
These t*o faults are from South Carolina)s 4iedmont+ These faults are e(ident y the off& set igneous intrusions in the roc,+
5ffset in stream (alley from San Andreas 8ault mo(ement

Copyright F 6ichael Collier
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8ractures and Goints

Goints occur *here a roc, rea,s ut there is no displacement or faulting associated *ith the rea,+ Goints are not singular features, ut they occur in sets *ithin a gi(en type or area of a roc,+ 8ractures are rea,s in roc,s that are often singular more random features and are not associated *ith a set of ;oints+ 8ractures often occur in association *ith faults or folds+ Crustal mo(ements, deformation, or other tectonic related mo(ements can cause roc,s to ;oint or fracture+ Goints and fractures form from compression, tension, or shear stress and can range in si0e from millimeters to ,ilometers+ Common forms of ;ointing are columnar, sheet ;ointing, and tensional ;oints+ Columnar ;ointing occurs *hen igneous roc,s cool and de(elop shrin,age ;oints along pillar&li,e columns+ Sheeting ;oints occur *hen the layers of roc, release pressure and e/foliate along parallel planes+ $rittle fractures and tensional ;oints are caused y regionally e/tensi(e compressional or elongated pressures along folds in the crustal roc,s+ Sometimes, ;ointing is o (ious, ut the processes that caused it may e un,no*n, or difficult to identify+ 8ractures and ;oints create a (ariety of path*ays for *ater to flo* through, *hich *ea,en the roc, and facilitate chemical, iological, and mechanical *eathering processes+ +6
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Gointing
The image elo* is of (ertical ;ointed, edded meta& sandstone in the Sna,e 3ange in De(ada+
Copyright F $ruce 6olnia, ASGS Copyright Larry 8ello*s, Ari0ona Geological Sur(ey
These t*o images are an e/ample of columnar ;ointing+ The image on the top is a side (ie* and the image elo* is from the top+ These he/agonal columns of roc, formed from cooled asalt are part of De(il)s 4ostpile Dational 6onument in California+
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Domes and $asins

Domes and 3asins are large, elongated folds formed 3y 3road ?arping processes incl%ding mantle con-ection, isostatic ad6%stment, or s?elling from a hot spot, *p?arping prod%ces domes, ?hile do?n?arping prod%ces 3asins, Geologists identify dome and 3asin str%ct%res 3y the stratified ages of the roc8 folds: Domes contain strata ?hich increase in age to?ard the center as the yo%nger layers are eroded from the top and sides, $asins contain strata ?hich is yo%ngest to?ard the center and the oldest roc8s form the flan8s or sides,
This geologic map of the 6ichigan $asin illustrates the circular pattern of the sedimentary strata+ The green color in the center of the map represents the youngest roc,s *hich are Apper 4ennsyl(anianK and the roc,s progressi(ely increase in age to*ard the periphery *here the reddish& orange colors represent the oldest roc,s flan,ing this structure *hich are 5rdo(ician and Cam rian age+ 5ldest 3oc,s -5rdi(ician and Cam rian. Loungest roc,s -Apper 4ennsyl(anian.
http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iI6ichiganJ$asin
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@orst and Gra en% $asin and 3ange
2orst and gra3en topography is generated 3y normal fa%lting associated ?ith cr%stal e;tension, The central 3loc8 termed gra3en is 3o%nded 3y normal fa%lts and the gra3en drops as the cr%st separates, The gra3en forms an elongated -alley that is 3o%nd 3y %plifted ridge li8e mo%ntaino%s str%ct%res referred to as horsts, Some horsts may tilt slightly prod%cing asymmetric, tilted terrane or mo%ntain ranges, <n the 7estern *nited States, horst and gra3en fa%lt seB%ences are descri3ed as FBasin and 'angeG topography,
$asin and 3ange topography, De(ada+
Copyright F 6arli 6iller, Ani(ersity of 5regon
+(
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3ift Balleys
'ift -alleys are fa%lt str%ct%res formed 3y normal fa%lts, 'ising magma 3elo? the cr%st %p?ells, forcing the lithosphere to fract%re, as it fract%res and crac8s, one or more fa%lts ca%se the cr%stal roc8s to separate forming a rift -alley, 'ift -alleys can e-ent%ally form la8es or seas s%ch as the 'ed Sea, ?hich separates 9frica from the 9ra3ian .enins%la, 'ift -alleys can 3ecome inacti-e and fill in ?ith -olcanic material, s%ch as the rift str%ct%re in the *nited States ?hich e;tends from La8e S%perior to &8lahoma, 3ift Balleys in Africa East African 3ift Balley La,e
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6a;or 6ountain 3anges of the >orld

Antarctica% Antarctic 4eninsula, Transantarctic 6ountains Africa% Atlas, Eastern African @ighlands, Ethiopian @ighlands Asian% @imalayas, Taurus, El ur0, Gapanese 6ountains Australia% 6acDonnell 6ountains Europe% 4yrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Apennines, Arals, $al,an 6ountains Dorth American% Appalachians, Sierra De(ada, 3oc,y 6ountains, Laurentides South American% Andes, $ra0ilian @ighlands
European Alps 3oc,y 6ountains @imalaya 6ountains
Appalachian 6ountains
Andes 6ountain s
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3oc,y 6ountains
The 3oc,y 6ountains, *hich e/tend from $ritish Colum ia to Te/as *ere formed y the Laramide 5rogeny "0&'0 million years agoK ho*e(er, there is still acti(e uplift today+ Colorado)s 8ront 3ange, the Sangre de Cristo 6ountains of Colorado and De* 6e/ico, the 8ran,lin 6ountains in Te/as, and >yoming)s $ighorn 6ountains are all part of the <3oc,y 6ountain 3ange=+
The 3oc,y 6ountains contain some of the most eautiful scenery in Dorth America and are home to hundreds of par,s and recreational areas including 3oc,y 6ountain Dational 4ar,, Losemite Dational 4ar,, Glacier Dational 4ar,, and Grand Tetons Dational 4ar,+
The Laramide 5rogeny *as characteri0ed y intense tectonic acti(ity resulting from a series of compressional and e/tensional e(ents+ The su duction of the 4acific 5cean 4late caused compressional forces in the continental plate, and pushed the oceanic plate do*n*ard+ 8ollo*ing su duction of the oceanic plate, up*elling and e/tensional forces caused the literal uplift of the continental edroc, and formed of the 3oc,y 6ountains+ The lo*er crust in this region of up*elling and uplifting is relati(ely thin and stretches under pressure+ The upper crust is (ery rittle and deforms easily+ As a result the upper crust is characteri0ed y large angular tilted faults loc,s *hich form the 3oc,y 6ountains *e see today+
CopyrightF Dr+ 3oger Slatt, Ani(ersity of 5,lahoma
Source% ASGS
3+
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Appalachian 6ountains
The Appalachian 6ountains e/tend along the eastern margin of Dorth America from Ala ama to 6aine in the Anited States, and through the southeastern pro(inces of Canada to De*foundland+ The Appalachian 6ountains *ere formed during the 4aleo0oic Era from se(eral orogenic episodes, the Taconic 5rogeny -5rdo(ician M"'0 mya., follo*ed y the Acadian 5rogeny -De(onian M"00 mya., and lastly the Alleghany 5rogeny -4ermian M #00 mya.+ Each of these ma;or orogenic episodes in(ol(ed multiple e(ents of folding, faulting, metamorphism, emplacements of igneous intrusions, and uplift+ The Appalachian 6ountains are di(ided into four ma;or pro(inces% 4iedmont, $lue 3idge, Balley and 3idge, and Appalachian 4lateau+
>aterfall car(ed into (alley of $lue 3idge 4ro(ince of the Appalachians near the South Carolina and Dorth Carolina order+
***+ maps+google+com
Source% ASGS
Source% SCGS
This is an aerial (ie* of the Sus7uehanna 3i(er in 4ennsyl(ania flo*ing through the folded and faulted Balley and 3idge 4ro(ince of the Appalachian 6ountains+ 33 Ta le of Contents
Andes 6ountains
The Andes 6ountains egan forming during the Gurrasic period -M200 mya. *hen plate tectonics forced the oceanic Da0ca plate to su duct eneath the continental South American plate+ The su duction 0one et*een the plate margins mar,s the 4eru&Chile ocean trench *hich is 2E,500 ft -',0E5 meters. elo* sea le(el+ Tectonic forces along this acti(e continental margin are forcing the ongoing uplift, folding, faulting, and thrusting of edroc, forming the Andes 6ountains+ The Andes are the longest mountain range on land and they e/tend along the entire *estern coast of South America+ They are di(ide into three sections% -!. Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile, -2. Central Andes including the Chilean and 4eru(ian cordilleras an parts of $oli(ia, and -#. Dorthern sections in Bene0uela, Colum ia, and Ecuador, including to parallel ranges the Cordillera 5ccidental and the Cordillera 5riental+ The Andes 6ountains contain many acti(e (olcanoes, including Cotopa/i in Ecuador, one of the largest acti(e (olcanoes in the *orld+
http%(isi leearth+nasa+go(I
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European Alps
The European Alps egan forming during the Alpine 5rogeny -M 20&!20 mya. *ith the collision of the African 4late mo(ing north*ard into the European 4late+ This motion is still acti(e today as the Alps continue to uplift, fold, fault, and accrete+ The Alps are the largest mountain range in Europe and they e/tend from Austria and Slo(enia in the east, through 1taly, S*it0erland, Germany, and 8rance in the *est+ 6a;or orogenic e(ents in(ol(ed recum ent folding and thrust faulting of crystalline asement roc,s that today form some of the highest pea,s in the Alps+ The Alps *ere one of the first mountain ranges to e studied y geologists and as a result many geomorphic terms, especially those relating to glaciation and Halpine) en(ironments, *ere first defined in the European Alps+ African 4late
Germany S*it0erland Austria
European 4late
8rance
Al n ea p ro Eu 1taly
ps
Slo(enia
http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iI6atterhorn
6odified from% http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iIAlps
The 6atterhorn, on the order et*een S*it0erland an 1taly, is one of the most familiar mountains in the *orld and is a popular clim ing site+ The continent& continent collision resulted in the pea, of the 6atterhorn containing edroc, from the African 4late *hile the lo*er portions contain edroc, from the European 4late+ 3! Ta le of Contents
@imalaya 6ountains
@imalaya orogeny egan "5&5" million years ago from the collision et*een the 1ndia and Eurasian 4lates and is still acti(e today+ >hen t*o continental plates collide, the Earth)s crust at the plate oundaries is folded, faulted, o(erthrusted, uplifted forming an e/tensi(e continental mountain range+ Today, the @imalayas separate the 1ndian su &continent from the Ti etan 4lateau and they are recogni0ed as the tallest a o(e sea le(el mountains on Earth+ The @imalayas contain !0 of the tallest mountain pea,s on Earth N',000 meters , including 6ount E(erest *ith a pea, of ''50 meters -22,0#5 ft.+ 1n addition, the @imalayas include three ma;or indi(idual mountain ranges, the Cara,oram, @indu Cush, and To a Ca,ar+ Shallo*, intermediate, and deep earth7ua,es are associated *ith this 0one, and scientists predict that se(eral ma;or earth7ua,es *ill occur in the region posing a significant ha0ard to millions of people+ The name @imalaya is from Sans,irt, and it means <the a ode of sno*=+ H@ima) for Continental O Continental 4late Collision sno* and Halaya) for a ode+
***+usgs+go(
http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iI1mage%@imalayas+;pg
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Bolcanic Landforms% E/trusi(e 1gneous
$inder $ones Shield 4olcanoes Strato ($omposite)4olcanoes La-a Domes $aldera 4olcanic =ec8s 4olcanic 2ot Spots
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Cinder Cones
$inder cones are relati-ely small cone shaped hills (H +))) ft of relief) formed 3y the acc%m%lation of cinders and ash d%ring -olcanic er%ptions, The cinders form from 3%rsting 3%33les of gas in the magma that e6ect la-a into the air, The s%mmit my 3e tr%ncated or 3o?l shaped ?here the magma emerges from a single central -ent or -olcanic nec8, $inder cones are formed from an acc%m%lation of e6ected tephra and scoria roc8s, Tephra and scoria occ%r in a range of different siIes from fine ashes to large -olcanic roc8 fragments, &nce the magma is e6ected into the air, it cools, hardens, and is deposited on the s%mmit or slopes of the cinder cone, The pyroclastic tephra and scoria roc8s are prod%ced from gas rich 3asaltic magma, and is %s%ally reddish 3ro?n to 3lac8 in color, $inder cones generally form from a single -olcanic episode and are rarely associated ?ith er%ptions lasting more than a decade, $inder cones can 3e fo%nd in com3ination ?ith shield and strato -olcanos and can occ%r at con-ergent or di-ergent plate 3o%ndaries, $inder cones are the most common type of -olcano and often occ%r in large n%m3ers ?ithin a region forming J-olcano fieldsD, 0lagstaff 9riIona contains a -olcanic field of nearly 6)) cinder cones, Cinder cones ha(e an easily recogni0a le hill shape form *ith relati(ely steep #0&"0 degree slopes+ This angle represents the steepest angle maintained y unconsolidated, loose material and is commonly referred to as the angle of repose+ This image is of an older cinder cone *ith small caldera depression on the summit+
Copyright F Larry 8ello*s, ASGS
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Shield Bolcanoes
Shield -olcanoes are 3road shaped mo%ntain landforms 3%ilt 3y the acc%m%lation of fl%id 3asaltic la-a, Their slopes are often -ery gentle and may 3e H ! degrees, and their s%mmits, or pea8s, are relati-ely flat, They recei-ed their name 3eca%se their gently domed form resem3les the e;terior of a ?arriorDs shield, 5ost shield -olcanoes originate from the ocean floor and ha-e Jgro?nD to form islands or seamo%nts, 2a?aii and the Galapagos <slands are e;amples of shield -olcanoes that formed in the ocean and emerged as mo%ntaino%s, island landforms, 5agma, or la-a, discharges from 3oth the s%mmit and rifts along the slopes, 5ost la-a that forms shield -olcanoes er%pts as a flo? from fiss%resK ho?e-er, occasional high intensity pyroclastic e6ections may occ%r, Shield -olcanoes %s%ally ha-e either smooth, ropy pahoehoe la-a, or 3loc8y, sharp aa la-a, Shield -olcanoes form the largest -olcanoes on :arth, 6auna Loa Bolcano on @a*aii is a shield (olcano and the la(a flo* elo* illustrates a typical eruption for a shield (olcano+
4hoto% D+ Little, ASGS
Courtesy ASGS @a*aiian Bolcano 5 ser(atory
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Strato Bolcanoes
Strato -olcanoes, also referred to as composite cones, are large, nearly symmetrical mo%ntaino%s landforms, formed 3y a com3ination of la-a flo?s and intense pyroclastic er%ptions, :r%ptions are -iolent and the e6ected material is primarily a gas rich, high -iscosity (resistance to flo?) magma ?ith an andesitic composition, :r%ptions can also prod%ce e;tensi-e ash deposits, 5ost strato -olcanoes are located along the ring of fire ?hich is a geographic Ione that rims the .acific .late ?here it is in contact ?ith the :%rasian, =orth 9merican, and <ndo 9%stralian .late, 7ell 8no?n strato -olcanoes occ%r in the 9ndes, the $ascade 'ange of the *nited States and $anada (incl%ding 5o%nt St, 2elens, 5o%nt 'anier, and 5o%nt Gari3aldi), and the -olcanic islands of the ?estern .acific from the 9le%tian <slands to 1apan, the .hilippines, and =e? Aealand, 6ount St+ @elens !2'0 eruption
ASGS Cascades Bolcano 5 ser(atory
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Caldera
$alderas are 3o?l shaped collapse depressions formed 3y -olcanic processes, $alderas most li8ely res%lt from one of three collapse type e-ents:

1, $ollapse of the s%mmit follo?ing an e;plosi-e er%ption of silica rich p%mice and ash pyroclastics +, $ollapse of the s%mmit follo?ing the s%3terranean or fiss%re drainage of the magma cham3er 3, $ollapse of a large area follo?ing the discharge of silica rich p%mice and ash along ring fract%res that may or may not ha-e 3een pre-io%sly acti-e -olcanoes
$rater La8e in &regon is an e;ample of a #)) year old caldera that formed from the er%ption and collapse of 5o%nt 5aIama, Today it is filed in ?ith rain?ater and forms a la8e, 9 small cinder cone, named 7iIard <sland, formed inside the caldera and today it emerges as an island in the la8e, 5any of the calderas on 2a?aiian -olcanoes formed after the magma drained thro%gh fiss%res in the central magma cham3er and the s%mmit e-ent%ally collapses, @ello?stone =ational .ar8 contains a caldera that is L/3 miles across and ?as formed 3y an intense pyroclastic er%ption that e6ected ash fragments as far as the g%lf of 5e;ico, Crater La,e in 5regon is the collapsed caldera of 6ount 6a0ama and is no* filled in *ith *ater+ >i0ard 1sland is a (olcanic cone in the middle of the la,e+ Crater La,e is the deepest la,e in the Anited States at !,2#2 feet deepP
Copyright Larry 8ello*s, ASGS
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La(a Domes
La-a domes are ro%nded, steep sided mo%nds 3%ilt 3y -ery -isco%s magma that is resistant to flo? and 3%ilds %p forming a dome, The magma does not mo-e far from the -ent 3efore cooling and it crystalliIes in -ery ro%gh, ang%lar 3asaltic roc8s, 9 single la-a dome may 3e formed 3y m%ltiple la-a flo?s that acc%m%late o-er time,
This la(a dome egan forming after the 6ount St+ @elen)s eruption in !2'0+ Geologists set up a monitoring station to measure the gro*th of this la(a dome and recorded that it is gro*ing at a rate of a out "0 feet per year+
CopyrightFLyn Topin,a /+ Ta le of Contents
Bolcanic @ot Spots
4olcanic hot spots occ%r ?here a mass of magma ascends to?ard the earthDs s%rface as a mantle pl%me, releasing 3asaltic magma that generates -olcanic acti-ity at a locally specific site, 2ot spots do not occ%r along plate 3o%ndaries 3%t instead form as intraplate -olcanic feat%res characteriIed 3y magma %p?elling, &nce a hot spot is generated it may stay acti-e for millions of years, 2ot spots may prod%ce thermal effects in the gro%nd ?ater and the cr%st prod%cing geothermal po?er often in the form of steam, <n <celand and <taly geothermal po?er is %sed to generate electricity for ind%strial and m%nicipal %se, The 2a?aiian <slands formed o-er the last ! million years from a hot spot in the .acific &cean, 9s the .acific plate mo-es o-er the hotspot, it generates a chain of islands that emerge as seamo%nts a3o-e the oceanDs s%rface, 2ot spot acti-ity is c%rrently most acti-e on the 3ig island, 2a?aii, Cauai 5ahu
Dihau
5ldest 1slands
6olo,ai Lanai
i fi c4 l at e6 o( e
6aui Cahoola*e
4a c
@a*aii
en
Loungest 1slands
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***+usgs+go(
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Bolcanic Dec,s
4olcanic nec8s are remnant cooled la-a pipes that are e;posed after the e;terior -olcanic mo%ntain is ?eathered and eroded, 4olcanic nec8s are a good e;ample of differential ?eathering, The magma cooled in the interior pipes is more resistant than the e6ected deposits that acc%m%late on the e;terior, 9s a res%lt, ?hen the -olcanic mo%ntain erodes, it lea-es 3ehind the remnant more resistant -olcanic nec8,
Shiproc, is a (olcanic nec, of a solidified la(a core from a dormant "0&million year old (olcano+ 1ts ele(ation is :,!:' feet a o(e sea le(el *ith a local relief of !,'00 feet+ 1t lies south*est of the to*n of Shiproc,, De* 6e/ico, and *as named after !2th &century clipper ships+
Copyright F 6ichael Collier
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8lood $asalts
0lood 3asalts, also referred to as platea% 3asalts, are massi-e acc%m%lations of 3asaltic la-a that are molten eno%gh to flo? for miles 3efore cooling, 0lood 3asalts form from la-a released from fiss%res in the cr%st, and are not prod%ced 3y classic -olcanic mo%ntain related er%ptions, The $ol%m3ia .latea% in north?est *nited States ?as formed ?hen m%ltiple fiss%res released s%ccessi-e la-a flo?s prod%cing regionally e;tensi-e flood 3asalts,
The Colum ia 3i(er 8lood $asalt 4ro(ince spans 1daho, >ashington, and 5regon in the Anited States+ The flood& asalt plateaus *ere formed y multiple e/tensi(e la(a flo*s that accumulated o(er millions of years+ Today the landscape is dissected y ri(ers and (alleys and the indi(idual layers of asalts are e/posed+ This image sho*s t*o ma;or asalt layers, the Grande $asalt and the 1mnahu $asalt+
4hoto courtesy% Stephen 3iedel
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Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:
Bolcanic Landforms% 1ntrusi(e 1gneous
Batholiths .l%tons Stoc8s 5onadnoc8s Laccoliths Di8es Sills 4eins
Source% ASGS
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$atholith
Batholiths are massi-e igneo%s intr%sions that form linear 3odies that e;tend for h%ndreds of 8ilometers across the landscape and can 3e se-eral 8ilometers thic8, Some 3atholiths may incorporate gro%ps of smaller pl%tons in addition to their massi-e str%ct%re, Batholiths form 3elo? the earthDs s%rface as intr%sions of magma emplaced d%ring tectonic processes, 0ollo?ing emplacement they may 3e %plifted and e;posed 3y ?eathering and erosion processes, Some 3atholiths are metamorphosed 3y heat and press%re, 0or e;ample, many of the 3atholiths in the 9ppalachian 5o%ntains are metamorphosed igneo%s intr%sions,
@alf Dome is a granitic igneous intrusion that forms an impressi(e mountain pea, that is part of the greater Sierra De(ada $atholith in Losemite Dational 4ar,+ The H@alf Dome) shape *as car(ed y glacial erosion+ The Sierra De(ada $atholith, *hich includes @alf Dome, 6t+ >hitney, and El Capitan, ecame e/posed as the mountains uplifted and *eathering and erosion remo(ed the material surrounding the atholith+
Copyright F $ruce 6olnia at Terra 4hotographics
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4lutons
.l%tons are intr%si-e igneo%s roc8s ?hich form 3elo? the :arthDs s%rface and are s%rro%nded 3y sedimentary or metamorphic roc8s, .l%tons are formed as magma forces its ?ay %p thro%gh other roc8s and solidifies 3efore reaching the s%rface, Some pl%tons are remnant magma cham3ers that once f%eled -olcanic acti-ity, .l%tons 3ecome e;posed on the landscape as the other roc8s s%rro%nding them are remo-ed 3y ?eathering and erosion, Some pl%tons appear as small or large hills ?hile others appear as ta3%lar, flat roc8 e;pos%res,
Enchanted 3oc, is a large granitic pluton in the Llano Aplift of the Te/as @ill Country 3egion that is part of a larger igneous atholith+
http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iI1mage%EnchantedJroc,J200E+;pg
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Sills, Laccoliths, and Di,es
Sills and laccoliths are igneo%s intr%sions that form near the earthDs s%rface, They are concordant feat%res meaning that they form parallel to e;isting strata or str%ct%res, Sills form near the s%rface from -ery fl%id magma that cools B%ic8ly they are %s%ally mostly 3asaltic roc8s ?ith an aphanitic (fine grained) te;t%re, Laccoliths are similar to sills, accept they are formed 3y more -isco%s magma ?hich collects in a lens shape prior to cooling as a concordant igneo%s intr%sion near the s%rface, This process may force the o-erlaying strata to form a slightly domed str%ct%re o-er the 3%lging laccolith, Di8es are ta3%lar intr%sions of igneo%s roc8 that form ?hen magma in6ects into fract%res, Di8es are discordant feat%res, meaning that they c%t thro%gh layers of roc8, 5agma can force the roc8 apart separating the fract%re, The cooled magma can range in thic8ness from centimeters to 8ilometers and may 3e more resistant to erosion than the s%rro%nding roc8s ena3ling them to protr%de o%t?ard amidst their s%rro%ndings, The dar, linear feature in this image is an e/posed di,e that is more resistant to *eathering and erosion than the surrounding landscape+
http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iIsill
Salis ury Craig is an e/posed sill north of Edin urg, Scotland that forms a resistant cap on this hill top+
Copyright F6ichael Collier
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6onadnoc,s
5onadnoc8s are large hills or mo%ntains of 3edroc8 that stand o%t in the landscape, 5onadnoc8s persist in the landscape 3eca%se they consist of a more resistant roc8 material than the s%rro%nding roc8 types ?hich ha-e 3een ?eathered and eroded a?ay, <n So%th $arolina, most monadnoc8s consist primarily of metamorphosed igneo%s intr%sions, ?hich are more resistant to ?eathering than the s%rro%nding roc8s, Little 5o%ntain, Ta3le 'oc8, $aesarDs 2ead, and Glassy 5o%ntain, are all e;amples of monadnoc8s in So%th $arolina,
Ta le 3oc, in South Carolina is an e/ample of a monadnoc, landform+ 1t)s geologic history indicates that is *as emplaced as an igneous intrusion during the 4aleo0oic, and it *as later metamorphosed during the uilding of the Appalachian 6ountains+ 6illions of years of *eathering and erosion of the surrounding roc, ha(e ena led Ta le 3oc, to persist as a resistant outcrop at the edge of South Carolina)s 4iedmont+
Source% SCGS
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2
3i(er Systems and 8lu(ial Landforms

'i-er Systems and 0l%-ial Landforms Longit%dinal .rofile and 7atersheds So%th $arolina 'i-ers La8es and Dams 5o%ntain Streams Straight 'i-ers Braided 'i-ers 5eandering 'i-ers 9na3ranching 'i-ers G%lleys 'i-er Terraces 'i-er $anyons 7aterfalls 0lood plains 9ll%-ial 0ans
4hoto% SCGS
The Congaree 3i(er in South Carolina is home to Congaree Dational 4ar, *hich is a large flood plain ecosystem that protects some of the oldest and largest ottomland hard*ood forests in the nation+ Almost e(ery year the Congaree 3i(er floods the Dational 4ar, pro(iding *ater, sediments, and nutrients that support the incredi le gro*th of the forest and rich iodi(ersity of organisms+
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3i(er Systems and 8lu(ial 4rocesses
'i-ers are one of the most dominant agents of landscape change 3eca%se their flo?ing ?aters are contin%ally eroding, transporting, and depositing sediments, 'i-ers are critically important to people 3eca%se they pro-ide fresh drin8ing ?ater, transportation of people, goods, and ?astes, hydro electric po?er generation, irrigation, and recreation, 'i-ers, altho%gh -ery important to people, are also -ery dangero%s 3eca%se flooding is among one of the most freB%ent and ?idespread nat%ral haIards that can damage or destroy land, property, and life, Beca%se ri-ers systems are so important to h%mans, it is necessary for scientists to %nderstand ho? ri-ers affect the landscape and also ho? h%mans affects ri-ers, 2a-ing this information ena3les people to 3etter manage for f%t%re ?ater reso%rce needs and pre-ent haIardo%s sit%ations,
Image Source: SCGS Ta le of Contents
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Standards% 5&# Standards% '&#
Longitudinal 4rofile and >atersheds
The longitudinal profile of a ri-er is an ele-ation cross section of the entire ?atershed from the so%rce of flo?ing ?ater to the mo%th of the stream,
The so%rce area of flo?ing ?ater is defined as the head*aters, 2ead?aters are the highest ele-ation ?here ?ater collects to form a stream net?or8 and is generally formed 3y either sno? melt r%noff, a nat%ral spring, or rain?ater, The mo%th of the stream is typically defined 3y the streamDs %ltimate ase le(el, and this generally corresponds ?ith the sea le-el ?here the ri-er meets the ocean, Base le-el is the lo?est ele-ation that a stream can erode its channel, Local or temporary 3ase le-els may 3e formed 3y reser-oirs or ?aterfalls, 9 ri-erDs gradient (slope) is steepest near the head?aters and gentlest near the mo%th, 9s ri-ers flo? from their head?aters to their 3ase le-el they car-e -alleys into the landscape 3y eroding, transporting, and depositing ?eathered roc8s, soil, and sediment,
9 *atershed or asin is the area of land 3o%nd 3y a local ele-ation ridge, referred to as a drainage di(ide, ?here all the ?ater ?ithin that area drains do?nstream from its head?aters to a single o%tflo? location, 9 ?atershed can incl%de an entire ri-er system from it head?aters to %ltimate 3ase le-el, or smaller ?atersheds can encompass tri3%tary s%3 3asins that are part of the larger ?atershed, Drainage di-ides are high ele-ation ridges that separate one ?atershed from another, !3
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Standards% 5&# Standards% '&#
Longitudinal 4rofile and >atersheds

! 2 # # ! 2 ! ! !
@ead*aters% multiple lo*&order streams near drainage di(ide
Longitudinal 3i(er 4rofile

@ead*aters
St ee p, hi gh &g ra di en t
gentle, lo * &gradien t
"
"
#,000 Ele(ation -feet.
Altimate $ase le(el
0
5
!00
Stream 5rder% !st order and !st order Q 2nd order 2nd order and 2nd order Q #rd order #rd order and #rd order Q "th order "th order and "th order Q 5th order And so on, 5 and 5 QE, E and E Q:th orderR
$ase le(el% single outflo* and highest order stream
3i(er Length -6iles.
This figure is a hypothetical ri(er asin+ The lac, dotted line represents the drainage di(ide and the num ers refer to stream order+ Any rainfall that falls *ithin the lac, dotted line *ill e(entually flo* into the main stem ri(er and out at the mouth+ Stream order increases from the head*aters to the ase le(el+ 1n this e/ample, the ri(er is a5th&order ri(er+
This diagram outlines the longitudinal profile of a ri(er asin from the head*aters to the ultimate ase le(el, or sea le(el+ A ri(ers gradient is steepest near the head*aters and gentlest near the ase le(el+ 1n South Carolina, the steepest sections are often found in the lue 3idge and 4iedmont, *hile the gentler gradient occurs in the Coastal 4lain+ 3i(er length, or distance, is measured from the ri(ers mouth to its head*aters, seemingly re(ersed from *hat one might e/pect+
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E Standards% '&#+2
South Carolina 3i(ers and $asins
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Dams and La,es
Dams are control str%ct%res on ri-ers ?hich store and release ri-er ?ater from a la8e (reser-oir) according to specific operating regimes, Some dams are r%n of ri-er str%ct%res ?hich contin%ally release the same amo%nt of ?ater entering the reser-oir, ?hile others are operated as storage facilities for reg%lated control on ?ater releases, 9ltho%gh #) percent of the earth is co-ered ?ith ?ater, only a3o%t +,! percent is fresh?ater, 3y 3%ilding dams ?ith reser-oirs people are a3le to store the fresh?ater and %se it as needed, Dams pro-ide ?ater for drin8ing, irrigation, hydro electric po?er, ri-er na-igation, flood control, recreation, and many other needs, Dams disconnect ri-er channels and can f%nction as local 3ase le-el controls on stream gradient and store sediment from transporting do?nstream, They also act as 3arriers to migrating species, s%ch as fish tra-eling %pstream to spa?n, and the controlled ?ater releases alter the do?nstream ecology of ri-er systems and their floodplains, La,e 6urray and Saluda Dam% La,e 4o*ell and Glen Canyon Dam% Saluda 3i(er, South Carolina Colorado 3i(er, Ari0ona
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4hoto% 4aul 3+ Cucher
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6ountain Streams
5o%ntain streams are high gradient, lo? order streams so%rced from springs, rainfall, or sno?melt, They often contain a - shaped -alley, 3edroc8 stream 3ottom, rapids, ?aterfalls, and a -ery narro? flood plain, 5o%ntain streams form the head?aters of larger ri-er 3asins and they generally contain the largest sediment siIes incl%ding 3o%lders, co33les, gra-el, and coarse sand, 5o%ntain streams often contain localiIed pools %pstream and or do?nstream of small ele-ation drops, this pattern is referred to as a step pool seB%ence, These pools are often important to aB%atic ecology and increased 3iodi-ersity in mo%ntain streams,
StepOpool se7uence in the 6iddle Saluda 3i(er, South Carolina This stream is in the 6ountain $ridge >ilderness Area in South Carolina+ 1t flo*s o(er edroc, and contains numerous *aterfalls and step&pool se7uences+
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$raided
Braided ri-er patterns occ%r in high energy en-ironments that contain an e;cessi-e sediment load that is deposited on the 3ed of the channel, The stream loses the capacity to transport the sediments and it forces its ?ay thro%gh the acc%m%lation of sediments forming an inter?o-en net?or8 of channels, The islands 3et?een the 3raided channels are ephemeral and dynamic, The sediment is contin%ally remo3iliIed, transported and deposited, lea-ing minimal time for -egetation to esta3lish, as a res%lt they are rarely -egetated, Braided channels tend to 3e ?ide and shallo? ?ith defined 3an8s that are higher than the mid channel islands, Braided channels occ%r do?nstream of areas ?ith high sediment loads, Their sediment te;t%res -ary from silts, sands, and gra-els depending on the sediment so%rce,
This is the raided 3esurrection 3i(er in Alas,a+ The sediment load consists primarily of silt that has een eroded and *eathered from glacial de ris+ $raided ri(er patterns may also e referred to as anastomosing+
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6eandering
5eandering ri-er patterns are lo? gradient, sin%o%s channels that contain m%ltiple, indi-id%al meander 3ends that are laterally migrating across the flood plain, 9s they migrate or mo-e across the flood plain they are contin%o%sly eroding, transporting, and depositing all%-ial sediments, 5eandering ri-ers and their hydrologic conditions create a -ariety of depositional and erosional landform feat%res that collecti-ely form the flood plain -alley, The primary feat%res of meandering channels are the aggrading point3ar deposit on the inside of a meander 3end and eroding c%t 3an8 along the o%tside of the 3end, 9s the channel migrates laterally across the flood plain, sediments are eroded from the o%ter c%t3an8 and deposited on the inner point3ar, &ccasionally, meandering channels c%t off entire meander 3endsK these c%t offs are incorporated into the flood plain as o;3o? la8es or in filled channels,
This is an aerial (ie* of the meandering Congaree 3i(er and flood plain in Congaree Dational 4ar,, South Carolina+ This image uses infrared colors instead of true colorsK the infrared reflectance causes healthy (egetation to sho* up as a reddish& pin, color, instead of the green *e e/pect to see+ The ottom right of the image includes a recently cut off meander end and o/ o* la,e+ !(
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200E Aerial imagery% http%II***+dnr+sc+go(IG1SIgisdata+html
Entrenched 6eanders
:ntrenched meanders occ%r ?hen a ri-er channel c%ts do?n into the flood plain or 3edroc8 and the channel is trapped ?ithin a single co%rse and it can not migrate laterally 3%t erodes the landscape 3y do?n c%tting, This process ?ill often lea-e 3ehind n%mero%s terraces of -arying ?idth and e;pose m%ltiple layers of roc8, The $olorado 'i-er flo?ing thro%gh the Grand $anyon in 9riIona, pro-ides a classic e;ample of entrenched meanders, Do?n c%tting 3egan as the $olorado .latea% ?as %plifted a3o%t ! million years ago and the ri-er responded 3y eroding into the -alley and has maintained ro%ghly the same co%rse e-er since,
$elo* are the entrenched meanders of the Colorado 3i(er and to the right is the first geologic interpretation of the numerous geologic units e/posed y the do*n cutting ri(er+
Courtesy ASGS 4hotographic Li rary Copyright F 6ichael Collier
6)
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Ana ranching
9na3ranching ri-er patterns contain m%ltiple channels that ?ea-e a mosaic thro%gh semi permanent all%-ial -egetated islands, The islands are often the same height as the flood plain and ?ere li8ely isolated from the flood plain 3y meander 3end c%toffs, channel a-%lsions (a3andonment of an entire channel segment), or mid channel deposition and s%3seB%ent -egetation, 9na3ranching ri-ers often occ%r in alternating com3ination ?ith other ri-er forms, s%ch as meandering, 3raided, or straight ri-ers, 9na3ranching ri-ers pro-ide added ha3itat comple;ity and s%pport rich 3iodi-ersity,
This section of the Little 4ee Dee 3i(er in South Carolina represents an ana ranching ri(er, most li,ely formed y channel a(ulsion -channel a andonment. and reoccupation of oth the old and ne* channel+ Apstream and do*nstream from this segment the ri(er is mainly a single meandering channel *ith a *ide allu(ial flood plain and multiple meander end cutoffs+
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$opyright Google, +))" Ta le of Contents
Straight
Straight ri-er patterns are often the res%lt of reaches that are incised into 3edroc8, follo? geological str%ct%res, or are engineered 3y people to not mo-e laterally, They are not as common as meandering or 3raided streams and straight ri-ers generally only characteriIe a partic%lar reach of a ri-er channel, Straight reaches in a ri-er system can pro-ide important insight into 3edroc8 controls or a3r%pt changes in stream gradient,
Straight reach
6eandering reach
This reach of the Lynches 3i(er in South Carolina is particularly interesting to geologists and geomorphologists ecause the ri(er changes a ruptly from a sinuous, meandering pattern to a (ery straight channel+ The meandering sections occupy an allu(ial flood plain and are a le to migrate across the ri(er)s (alley+ The straight segments are incised into limestone edroc,, and the channel can not mo(e laterally+ Do*nstream from this large end the ri(er returns to a meandering pattern+ 6+
Data source% ***+dnr+sc+go(Igis+html
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8lood plains
Cut an,
0lood plains are the landform ad6acent to the ri-er channel that is infl%enced 3y modern ri-er processes, 0lood plains are constr%cti-e, depositional landforms created 3y stream flo? and sediment deposition, 0lood plain en-ironments are composed of a mosaic of different landform feat%res incl%ding cut an,s, point ars, natural le(ees, cre(asse channels and cre(asse splays, infilled channels and o/ o* la,es, ac,s*amps, and occasionally yaIoo tri3%taries and other flood plain channels,
4oint ar 1nfilled Channel
This aerial (ie* of the 6ississippi 3i(er Balley contains many typical floodplain features+ The dar,er, green areas are floodplain forest and they li,ely flood the most fre7uently and thus are not de(eloped *ith agriculture or housing+ The surrounding patch*or, represents agricultural fields and other de(eloped lands that are pro a ly at a higher ele(ation formed y natural or artificial le(ees+
5/ o* La,es
Copyright F200' Google
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8lood 4lains
Cut an,s form along the o%ter con-e; margin of meander 3ends, $%t3an8s , %nli8e most floodplain landforms are act%ally erosional feat%res formed 3y the lateral mo-ement of the channel across the flood plain, 0lood plain sediments are eroded from the c%t3an8 and deposited on point3ar s%rfaces, 4oint ars are conca-e, depositional landforms that form opposite of the eroding c%t3an8s, and they de-elop in concert ?ith the laterally migrating ri-er channel, .oint3ars are typically composed of sands, gra-el, silts, and clay deposits, that form arc%ate, meander&scroll ridges, Datural le(ees are depositional landforms formed from the -ertical acc%m%lation of sediments deposited d%ring flood e-ents, =at%ral le-ees form topographically higher s%rfaces ad6acent to the ri-er channel, that generally consist of stratified, ?ell sorted sands, silts, and clays, =at%ral le-ees deposits are thic8est and coarsest close to the channel and they 3ecome progressi-ely thinner, and finer ?ith increasing distance from the channel, Cre(asse channels and splays are 3reaches in the nat%ral le-ee that res%lt in the fan shaped deposition of flood deposits, 3eyond or o-er le-ee deposits, $re-asse channels can prod%ce flooding in 3ac8s?amp areas, e-en 3efore the le-ees are s%3merged 3y flood?aters, 5/ o* la,es or infilled channels form ?hen a meander 3end is c%t off from the main ri-er and a3andoned in the floodplain, 93andoned meanders can occ%r in -ario%s stages from flooded o;3o? la8es to 3eing completely infilled ?ith sediment deposits, $ac,s*amps are typically lo? lying areas of the floodplain 3eyond the nat%ral le-ee deposits, Bac8s?amps contain the finest te;t%red flood plain deposits and may e-en de-elop organic rich soils from the forest litter, They often form along the margins or edge of the floodplain, and are %s%ally infl%enced 3y connections to the gro%nd?ater, La0oo tri utaries are stream net?or8s that enter the floodplain 3%t the nat%ral le-ee pre-ents the stream from flo?ing into the ri-er, 9s a res%lt the yaIoo tri3%tary flo?s parallel to the mainstem ri-er 3efore reaching a 3reach in the le-ee or occ%pying the co%rse of an a3andoned meander that allo?s the stream to cross the le-ee deposits and flo? into the ri-er, 6/
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8lood 4lains
$oth of these images are G1S& ased models from the Congaree 3i(er floodplain in Congaree Dational 4ar,+ The image on the left is a clip from a flood model that sho*s the depth of flooding during a large flood e(ent+ The natural le(ee ad;acent to the channel is one of the topographically highest features and it floods the least+ The a andoned meanders and ac, s*amps are topographically lo*er and flood more fre7uently and to greater depths+ The channel net*or,s fill up *ith *ater connecting the o/ o* la,es to the main stem ri(er+ The image elo* is from a high resolution digital ele(ation model -DE6. of a floodplain+ The DE6 is useful for mapping the different landform features on a floodplain+
5/ o* la,e 1nfilled Channel

Da tur al Le (e e
Cre(asse Channels 6eander&Scroll ridges
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3i(er Terraces
'i-er terraces are older remnant flood plain s%rfaces that are higher in ele-ation than the modern flood plain, They may occ%r on one or 3oth sides of the -alley, Terraces are formed ?hen the ri-er channel c%ts do?n into the flood plain and laterally erodes the all%-ial -alley, car-ing a ne? ri-er channel and flood plain entrenched ?ithin the older flood plain s%rfaces, Do?n c%tting can occ%r 3eca%se of hydrologic or sedimentary changes in the head?aters or -alley gradient changes ca%sed 3y a retreating sea le-el and lo?ered or e;tended 3ase le-el, Terraces can also form from tectonics and -alley %plifting, Terraces are generally isolated from the more recent ri-er processes and may only flood d%ring 1)) or !)) year flood e-ents, 'i-er terraces are often archeological hot spots 3eca%se they contain artifacts from historic colonies that %sed the ri-er and flood plain,
Terrace ! Terrace 2 Terrace # Terrace " 3i(er Channel and 6odern 8lood 4lain
CopyrightFLouis 6aher, Ani(ersity of >isconsin
This ri(er has gone through se(eral different episodes of do*n cutting and re;u(enation+ The modern flood plain is preceded y four different terraces that all reflect distinct periods of en(ironmental conditions or (alley gradients, each different from the other+ 5(er time, it is possi le that the ri(er *ill do*n&cut again a andoning a fifth terrace+ 66
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>aterfalls
7aterfalls occ%r ?here there is resistant 3edroc8, a3r%pt changes in 3edroc8 resistance, or along fract%res or fa%lts in the 3edroc8, Less resistant materials are ?eathered more B%ic8ly than resistant roc8s, creating stair stepped ledges or drop offs ?here ?aterfalls occ%r, Less resistant roc8s may also form pools 3et?een resistant roc8s that form ?aterfalls, 0a%lts and fract%res often pro-ide nat%ral path?ays for the do?nslope mo-ement of ?ater, The location of the ?aterfalls origin may 3e referred to as a F8nic8 pointG, contin%ed ?eathering 3y the stream flo? ca%ses the 8nic8 point to slo?ly migrate %pstream, 5ost ?aterfalls in So%th $arolina occ%r along streams in the Bl%e 'idge, .iedmont, and the along the 'egional 0all Line ?here there are roc8 layers of -arying resistance, Lo*er >hite >ater 8alls in the Gocassee Gorges area of South Carolina drops nearly 200 ft+ @ere, the To/a*ay Gneiss forms a resistant edroc, that the Lo*er >hite >ater 3i(er flo*s o(er efore draining into La,e Gocasse+
This *aterfall *as formed y differential *eathering et*een the softer shale and harder more resistant limestone+
4hoto% SCGS
6#
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9ll%-ial fans are fan shaped fl%-ial deposits that acc%m%late at the 3ase of stream ?here it flo?s o%t from a steep gradient and enters into a lo?er gradient flood plain or -alley setting, The stream enters the -alley carrying a higher capacity sediment load than it can contin%e to carry, and as a res%lt it deposits the sediments as an all%-ial fan, 9ll%-ial fans generally form in arid en-ironments ?ith a high sediment load and ?here there is minimal -egetation to disr%pt the fan formation, 9ll%-ial fans may form from a single high flo? e-ent or from the acc%m%lation of m%ltiple e-ents,
Allu(ial 8ans
This allu(ial fan is carrying a high sediment load from material *eathered from the mountains+ The dar, line along the edge of the fan is a road+ $ecause the road is not uried y recent deposits it suggest that this fan is not currently as acti(e as it *as in the past+
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Gullys
G%llys are formed 3y hillslope erosion, 'ain?ater r%noff draining o-er the s%rface of a hillslope generates erosi-e o-erland flo?s that remo-e ?eathered roc8s and soil, 7hen m%ltiple g%llys form they prod%ce a disconnected net?or8 of head?ater channels that dissect the hillslope and increase soil erosion, G%llys primarily form on dist%r3ed hillslopes ?here forest and -egetation ha-e 3een cleared,
The forest *as cleared from this hill slope and corn *as planted on the are soil+ 8ollo*ing the first fe* rain e(ents, gullys egan to form as a result of soil erosion+ The gullys only carry *ater during rainfall e(ents+
6(
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Carst Landforms
>arst is a term %sed to descri3e landscapes that are formed 3y chemical ?eathering process controlled 3y gro%nd?ater acti-ity, >arst landscapes are predominantly composed of limestone roc8 that contains L #) percent calci%m car3onate,
$a-erns Sin8holes Disappearing Streams Springs To?ers
CopyrightF 5,lahoma Ani(ersity
5nondaga Ca(e in 6issouri is a ,arst landform formed y chemical solution in car onate limestone roc,s+ 8eatures *ithin 5nondaga Ca(e include stalagmites, stalactites, dripstones and acti(e flo*stone deposits+ 6issouri contains so many ca(es that it is nic,named the <Ca(e State=+ #)
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Ca(erns
Limestone ca-erns and ca-es are large s%3 s%rface -oids ?here the roc8s has 3een dissol-ed 3y car3onation, $a-erns and their -ario%s feat%res form 3elo? the gro%nd ?ater ta3le ?here dissol-ed minerals drip thro%gh the ceiling of the ca-e thro%gh fract%res and 6oints in the limestone, &-er time this mineral rich gro%nd ?ater dissol-es the roc8s %ntil e-ent%ally entire ca-erns are formed, $alci%m car3onate precipitates o%t of the sat%rated car3onate sol%tion and acc%m%lates as deposits, Stalactites are deposits that gro? from the ceiling do?n?ard and stalagmites are deposits that gro? from the gro%nd %p, <f the stalactite and stalagmites 6oin they form a contin%o%s col%mn, 5ammoth $a-e in >ent%c8y and $arls3ad $a-erns in =e? 5e;ico are t?o of the largest ca-e systems in =orth 9merica and the ?orld, This image of the <Chinese Theatre= =ot all ca-es are formed 3y 8arst processes, Some in Carls ad Ca(erns Dational 4ar, illustrates ho* stalactites and ca-es are formed 3y la-a t%3es and others are formed stalagmites can ;oin to form columns+ 3y the erosion forces of large amo%nts of gro%nd Dotice the person in the lo*er left for ?ater flo?,
scaleP #1
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Sin,holes
Sin8holes are collapsed limestone feat%res that de-elop in 8arst landscapes, Sin8holes form ?hen the limestone 3edroc8 is chemically ?eathered 3y nat%rally occ%rring chemicals in the gro%nd ?ater, The gro%nd ?ater slo?ly dissol-es the limestone roc8 3elo? the s%rface %ntil it e-ent%ally 3ecomes %nsta3le and collapses creating local depressional feat%res, Sin8holes occ%r in a range of siIes, and can 3e temporarily, seasonally, or permanently filled ?ith ?ater, Sin8holes pose a threat to de-eloped areas, 3eca%se if they occ%r 3eneath ho%ses or other infrastr%ct%re they may collapse ?ith the sin8hole, <ncreased press%re on ?ater reso%rces and depleted gro%nd ?ater ta3les can trigger sin8holes to collapse %nder the press%re of gra-ity or the -oid formed 3y the depleted gro%nd ?ater,
***+sf*md+state+fl+us
4hoto% ASGS
The left is an aerial (ie* of the Tres 4ue los sin,hole in 4uerto 3ico+ Solution of the underlying roc, caused edroc,, soil, and (egetation to collapse into the sin,hole feature+ The images a o(e are from ur an areas in 8lorida *here sin,holes damaged se(eral homes and usinesses+ #+
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Disappearing Streams
Disappearing streams are streams that flo? on the s%rface and then seemingly FdisappearG 3elo? gro%nd, Disappearing streams disappear into a sin8hole or other 8arst sol%tion feat%res s%ch as ca-es, They may also disappear into fact%res or fa%lts in the 3edroc8 near the stream, Disappearing streams are also referred to as losing streams, sin8s, or sie-es, Disappearing streams ?ill often contin%e flo?ing %ndergro%nd and may res%rface at another location do?nstream from ?here they disappeared, Disappearing streams often maintain a connection ?ith the local or regional gro%nd ?ater, and th%s it is important to protect their drainage 3asin from poll%ted r%n off to pre-ent gro%nd ?ater contamination from harmf%l poll%tants or chemicals,
Disappearing Stream
***+northeastio*arcd+org
The stream in this image on the left disappears into the limestone and continues to flo* underground efore resurfacing do*nstream+
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Springs
>arst springs are locations ?here gro%nd?ater emerges from the limestone and flo?s across the s%rface forming a stream or contained pool, The flo? of >arst springs is generally dependant on the ?eather and climate, Some are more permanent than others, ?hile others only flo? follo?ing rainfall or sno?melt e-ents, Springs that are connected to aB%ifers flo? year ro%nd and s%pport rich aB%atic 3iodi-ersity, >arst springs generally do not s%pport good ?ater B%ality, and th%s are not safe for drin8ing ?itho%t filtering the ?ater firstK ho?e-er, the springs often pro-ide f%n recreational opport%nities and can 3e a pop%lar place for s?imming and snor8eling,
http%II***+floridasprings+comIa out+html
Carst springs pro(ide cool, clear, *ater that is in(iting for people to s*im and snor,el in+ The left is from a ,arst spring in 8lorida an the image a o(e is from $arton Springs, a ,arst spring in the Te/as @ill Country+
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To*ers
>arst to?ers create a %niB%e topography ?here the landscape is mottled ?ith a maIe of steep, isolated limestone hills, The to?ers are ?eathered feat%res formed ?here the limestone 3eds are thic8 and highly 6ointed, as a res%lt the remnant to?ers contain ca-es and a -ariety of other passage?ays for ?ater to percolate along fract%res in the 6oints, >arst to?ers occ%r in tropical climates of .%erto 'ico, ?estern $%3a, so%thern $hina, and northern 4ietnam, L%sh -egetation from the tropical climates prod%ce greater car3on dio;ide that concentrates as a car3onic acid in the rain ?ater ?hich facilitates the ?eathering processes ?hich form 8arst to?ers,
These ,arst to*ers in southern China produce an interesting and uni7ue landscape+ Although they ha(e a (ery thin soil, the to*ers are capa le of supporting lush tropical (egetation+
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4hoto% 4at Cam esis
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Aeolian Landforms
9eolian landforms are formed 3y the deposition of ?ind3lo?n sediments, The sediments are generally so%rced from deserts, glacial deposits, ri-ers, or coastal shorelines, 9eolian sediments are often composed of ?ell ro%nded, sand to silt siIed particles, that are ?eathered 3y ?ind a3rasion d%ring transport, Sediments are deposited ?hen the -elocity of the ?ind falls and there is not eno%gh energy a-aila3le to entrain and transport the sediments, Sands ?ill 3egin to acc%m%late ?here-er they are deposited and often contin%e to mo-e along the gro%nd,
Coastal para olic sand dunes in The ACE $asin region of South Carolina+
D%nes Loess 0ormations $arolina Bays
4hoto courtesy of SCDD3
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Dunes
D%nes are formed as mo%nds or ridges of aeolian sand deposits and are then sc%lpted 3y near s%rface ?ind processes, s%ch as saltation, Saltation transports sediment %p slope on the ?ind?ard side and once the sediments reach the crest they fall o-er and acc%m%late as a steeper slope on the lee?ard side of the d%ne, referred to as the slip face, This section ?ill co-er archan, trans(erse, longitudinal, para olic, and star dunes, 9n area co-ered 3y many d%nes is an erg, $archan dunes are solitary, crescent shaped d%nes ?ith their tips pointing do?n?ind, They form ?here sand so%rce is limited, ?ind direction is constant, and the gro%nd is -oid of -egetation, They can reach heights of 3) meters and spread nearly 3)) meters, Trans(erse dunes are a series of long ridges that are parallel to one another, and are perpendic%lar to the pre-ailing ?ind, They form in areas ?here the pre-ailing ?inds are steady, there is an a3%ndant s%pply of sand, and -egetation is sparse, They can reach heights of +)) meters and may e;tend for 1))Ds of 8ilometers,
slip face
$archan Dunes
>ind
Trans(erse Dunes
>ind
>ind direction
Sand a(alanche
Dune mo(ement
Gohn 6cCauley, ASGS
Gohn 6cCauley, ASGS
http%II***+nps+go(Iarchi(eIgrsaI resourcesIimagesIlgformatI archan+;pg
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Dunes
Longitudinal dunes, also referred to as Seifs are long ridges of sand that form parallel to the pre-ailing ?ind, They form in areas ?here there is moderate s%pply of sand, and they range in siIe ! 1) meters tall to 1)) meters in height and ?idth, Star dunes are comple; d%nes ?ith a central mo%nd s%rro%nded 3y radiating points, 0rom a3o-e they resem3le a star shape, They are formed 3y shifting ?ind patterns that create the %niB%e star shape, Star d%nes can reach heights of () meters and e;tend o%t?ard for o-er t?ice their height, 4ara olic dunes are similar in form to 3archan d%nes e;cept their tips point into the ?ind, They form as 3lo? o%ts ?here the sand has car-ed o%t the sediments and deposited it onto the lee?ard side, .ara3olic d%nes form inland from coastal shorelines from sands on the 3each,
Star Dune in Dami Desert, Dami ia
Longitudinal Dune
4hoto% ***+googleearth+com E(e, 6ontana http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iI1mage%DuneJ:JinJtheJD ami JDesert+;peg
> in d
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Loess
Loess deposits are regionally e;tensi-e acc%m%lations of ?ind3lo?n silt res%lting from tho%sands of d%st storms, D%ring the d%st storms, silt is entrained, transported, and deposited as loess, Loess deposits are generally so%rced from either glacial or desert terranes, and silt may 3e transported for 1))Ms of miles 3efore 3eing deposited, Loess deposits are generally coarsest and thic8est close to their so%rce, and they decrease in thic8ness and grain siIe ?ith increasing distance from their so%rce, Loess is not stratified, meaning it lac8s distincti-e layers, <nstead they are massi-e acc%m%lations of silt, Loess deposits range from 3) to L1)) meters thic8, and they pro-ide -ery fertile soils for agric%lt%re and farmland, The most e;tensi-e loess deposit occ%rs in ?estern and northern $hina, and it contains sediments that ?ere 3lo?n from the deserts of $entral 9sia, <n the *nited States, e;tensi-e loess deposits occ%r in So%th Da8ota, =orth Da8ota, =e3ras8a, <o?a, 5isso%ri, 5ississippi, and <llinois, These deposits ?ere so%rced from glacial sediments,
Loess
Sandstone
4hoto% SCGS
This loess and sandstone contact is from a 7uarry near Bic,s urg, 6ississippi *here oth deposits are eing mined+ This loess *as sourced from glacial till and lo*n do*n the 6ississippi 3i(er Balley+ The person in the picture pro(ides a conte/t for the thic,ness of the loess deposit+ #(
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Lardang
9 yardang is an elongate ridge or remnant roc8 feat%re sc%lpted 3y a3rasi-e ?ind erosion, @ardangs occ%r in arid en-ironments ?here pre-ailing ?inds come from a single direction, The ?inds m%st 3e strong, steady, and carry a coarse sediment load that ?eathers the e;posed face of the yardang, @ardangs are sc%lpted into a -ariety of forms, and some may resem3le common o36ects or h%man li8e forms, 5ega yardangs are those that are se-eral 8ilometers ?ide and h%ndreds of meters high, meso yardangs are only a fe? meters high and 1) 1! meters long, and micro yardangs may only 3e a fe? centimeters in siIe,
Lardangs are eroded o(er long time periods and occur in a (ariety of si0es and forms+ The Egyptians *ould often sculpt yardangs into animal and human forms+ Some ancient cultures also car(ed ca(es into yardangs and used them for d*ellings or sacred religious places+ ")
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3i(erine Dunes and Sand Sheets

'i-erine sand d%nes occ%r on flood plains thro%gho%t the So%th :astern *nited States $oastal .lain, They sit 1) 3) feet a3o-e the flood plain and are composed of thic8 %niform deposits of ?ell sorted fine to coarse sands, 5ost d%nes are oriented from the north?est to so%theast, and in many cases they parallel ri-er channels, 0rom their orientation and shape, it is s%ggested that most are trans-erse d%nes, 'ecent dating indicate that d%nes formed d%ring the late N%aternary, ?ith most d%ne ages ranging from 1!,))) 1)),))) years old, 'i-erine sand sheets are depositional eolian landforms that occ%r in association ?ith ri-erine sand d%nes, They e;tend lee?ard (do?n?ind or a?ay from the ?ind) from the d%ne and 3ecome progressi-ely thinner ?ith increasing distance a?ay from the d%ne, The sand sheets are composed of the same homogeno%s sands that form the d%nes,
3i(erine Dune Ele(ation M20 ft Surrounding 8lood plain M '0 ft
This digital ele(ation model -DE6. of the confluence area et*een the >ateree and Congaree 3i(ers, in the Coastal 4lain of South Carolina contains a ri(erine sand dune+ The sand dune is a out ten feet higher than the surrounding flood plain and rarely floods e/cept during !00&500 year flood e(ents+ 8or this reason, it is hypothesi0ed that early e/plorers and Dati(e American 1ndians may ha(e li(ed on this sand dune and farmed in the surrounding flood plain+ "1
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Congaree 3i(er
>a ter ee 3i( e
Carolina $ays
$arolina Bays are o-al or elliptical, depressional ?etland feat%res enclosed 3y a lo? sandy ridge, The depth of $arolina Bays -aries depending on their siIe and land %se history, most a-erage a3o%t ! 1! feet deepK ho?e-er, some ha-e 3een meas%red ?ith depths greater than 3) feet , Sand rims enclosing the $arolina Bays also -ary in siIe, 3%t generally range from ! 1! feet, The origin of $arolina Bays is c%rrently de3ata3le, 5ost Geologists agree that they are eolian landforms, $arolina Bays ?ere formed 1)),))) 3),))) years ago, d%ring the N%aternary and occ%r thro%gh the coastal plain of Georgia, So%th $arolina, =orth $arolina, 4irginia, and 5aryland, $arolina Bays occ%r in -arying stages of flooding dependant on their land %se history, rainfall, and connection to gro%nd ?ater, $arolina Bays can 3e dry, temporarily flooded, or s%pport a permanent la8e,
# "
**+maps+google+com
6ost Carolina $ays ha(e their longest a/is oriented from north*est to southeast, although there are a fe* oriented in other directions+ The sand rims are largest along the southeastern edge, ut in some cases may e completely lac,ing+ 6any Carolina $ays ha(e een drained to support agriculture+ Andistur ed Carolina $ays contain uni7ue assem lages of *etland plants and a7uatic organisms+ This aerial image contains four Carolina $ays, three of *hich support agriculture and one, >oods $ay, that is protected y the Department of Datural 3esources @eritage Trust 4rogram+ "+
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+!, 5&#+" Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2
Coastal Landforms
$oastal landforms incl%de a di-erse array of shoreline and near shoreline feat%res, as ?ell as some coastal plain landforms far remo-ed from the modern ocean 3y long term sea le-el changes, This section ?ill e;plore 3oth constr%cti-e and destr%cti-e landforms formed 3y c%rrent coastal processes, as ?ell as marine related landforms that ?ere formed d%ring periods of higher sea le-el,

Littoral Aone Beaches Barrier <slands Beach 'idges Spits Deltas $oastal $liffs 5arine Terraces 7a-e $%t Scarps
@a*aiian coastline
4hoto source% SCGS
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The littoral Ione e;tends inland to the highest ?ater line d%ring storms and sea?ard to the f%rthest area ?here shoreline ?a-e processes stop infl%encing sediment transport and deposition on the seafloor and incl%des se-eral coastal landforms, The shoreline refers to the e;act area ?here the land meets the sea, and coast refers to the land ad6acent to the shoreline, The Jcoastal areaD, incl%des the coast, shoreline, and near shore area, The littoral Ione is a contin%o%sly changing en-ironment, and it can shift inland or sea?ard depending on changes in sea le-el, 'ising sea le-el ?ill s%3merge the coastal areas, and a drop in sea le-el ?ill prod%ce coastline emergence, Sea le-el is commonly referred to and meas%red as mean sea le-el (5SL), 5ean sea le-el is a -al%e 3ased on the a-erage tidal le-els recorded ho%rly for a gi-en site o-er at least a 1( year record, .resent 5SL meas%rements indicate that sea le-el is c%rrently rising, Littoral Sone
Littoral Sone
"/
1mage courtesy of AS Da(y
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Beaches are depositional landforms along the coastal area ?here sediment is transported and deposited 3y ?a-es and c%rrents, 9ltho%gh the sediment along the 3each is contin%ally 3eing mo3iliIed there is an o-erall net accretion of deposition, The ?idth of the 3eaches -ary from one location to another and from one shoreline to another, <n some locations a shoreline might e-en lac8 a 3each altogether, 5ost 3eaches are dominated 3y sand siIed B%artI grains, and shells or shell fragments, 2o?e-er, this can 3e highly -aria3le depending on the landscape that drains into the ocean and near shore sediment so%rces, 0or e;ample, some 3eaches in the 2a?aiian islands consist of coarse, red and 3lac8 roc8 fragments formed 3y ?eathered la-aK and in 0rance and <taly many 3eaches consist of pe33les and co33les, Sediment mo-ement along the 3each is referred to as 3each drift, and it generally follo?s long shore c%rrents tra-eling along a directional trend prod%ced as ?a-es approach the shallo?er ?ater in the s%rf Ione near the shoreline,
$eaches often sta ili0e shorelines y a sor ing or deflecting *a(e and current energy+ During large storms, such as hurricanes, eaches can e/perience e/tensi(e erosion, and it can e years efore they are replenished+ $eaches pro(ide numerous recreational acti(ities and are a popular destination for (acationers+
$eaches
"!
4hoto% SCGS
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Barrier islands, also referred to as 3arrier 3eaches, are long, narro?, depositional landforms, that form parallel to the coastline and may or may not connect to the mainland, They are the first line of protection against h%rricane storm s%rge, They are generally composed of B%artI sands, and they form along coasts ?here there is a s%3stantial s%pply of sand entering the ocean from $oastal .lain ri-ers, Barrier islands often form ?here tidal process are minimal, The land?ard side of the 3arrier islands may contain tidal flats, marshes, s?amps, lagoons, coastal d%nes, and 3eaches, Similar to 3eaches, 3arrier islands form in relation to, long shore c%rrent processes and o-ertime ad6%st to sea le-el changes, $lassic e;amples of 3arrier islands incl%de =orth $arolinaDs &%ter Ban8s and Te;asDs .adre <sland, Both of these 3arrier islands ha-e =ational .ar8 Ser-ice lands that preser-e nat%ral coastal processes and protect plant and ?ildlife ha3itat from h%man impacts,
$arrier 1slands
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1mage% D5AA
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$each 3idges
Beach ridges are ?a-e deposited ridges that form parallel to the coastline, They are composed of gra-el, sands, and shell fragments, and in some cases they may 3e capped 3y aeolian sands 3lo?n from the 3each, <f sea le-el retreat or regional %plifting occ%rs after the deposition of a 3each ridge it is incorporated into the mainland as a raised ele-ation ridge near the coast, Beach ridges may 3e deposited one after another or they may 3e separated 3y s?ale li8e feat%res that form marshes, s?amps, and other lo? lying ?etland en-ironments,
These linear ridges are each ridge and s*ale se7uences from St+ 4hillips 1sland in South Carolina+ The green is from dense maritime forest that gro*ing near the coast+ The light areas in et*een the ridges are marshes and the other dar,er areas et*een the (egetated ridges are rac,ish lagoons+$elo* is a cross section diagram of near&coast deposits, including each ridges
Source% Google 200'
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Spits
Spits are elongate depositional landforms that are attached at one end to the coast and e;tend o%t?ard from the coast, Spits are formed 3y a com3ination of ?a-e and c%rrent deposits, 9s the ?a-es and c%rrent lose energy near the mo%th of a 3ay the sediments deposit as elongate spit landforms, The spit may c%r-e slightly 3ac8 to?ards land in response to the ?a-es refarction pattern hoo8ing 3ac8 to?ard the land at the end of the spit, <n some cases they may e;tend o%t?ard across the mo%th of a 3ay, <f the spit e;tends eno%gh sediments to e-ent%ally c%t off the mo%th of the 3ay it 3ecomes a 3ay 3arrier and the 3ay 3ecomes a lagoon,
This spit is gro*ing to*ards the south*est and slight cur(es inland at the mouth of the inlet+ 1n addition, there is a slight lagoon forming et*een the coastal area and the depositional spit landform+
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Deltas
Deltas form ?here the mo%th of a ri-er meets its %ltimate 3ase le-el at the ocean or sea, 9s the ri-erDs -elocity decreases, it looses the capacity to carry its sediment load and the res%lting deposits form a delta, Delta shapes and forms -ary depending on tidal infl%ences, ?a-es, c%rrents, sediment type and B%antity, ri-er discharge, and the stream gradient near the o%tlet, The most common types of deltas incl%de 3ird foot, est%arine, and arc%ate, =ot all ri-ers form deltas, for e;ample the 9maIon deposits its sediment load directly into the ocean onto an %nder?ater sea?ard sloping continental shelf, The $ol%m3ia 'i-er in the north?est *nited States, lac8s a delta altogether, 3eca%se the c%rrents are too strong and erosi-e for the sediments to deposit,
A ird&foot delta contains a large channel *ith multiple smaller distri utary channels draining off from the main channel and depositing sediments+ They generally form *ith ri(ers that ha(e a high sediment load and flo* into an area *ith minimal tidal influences+ This false&color infrared image pro(ides a satellite (ie* of the 6ississippi 3i(er delta+ This delta has shifted positions se(eral times o(er the last 5000 years in relation to changes in the 6ississippi 3i(er+ Scientist recogni0e atleast : distinct deltas+ The most recent egan forming 500 years ago and forms a classic ird&foot delta+ "(
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6ississippi 3i(er Delta% $ird&8oot Delta
Deltas
An estuary delta is formed *here a ri(er meets the ocean and sediments from the ri(er are filling in the estuary+ Estuaries contain a rac,ish mi/ture of fresh*ater and salt*ater, and they ha(e a moderate to strong tidal influence+ Estuarine deltas are a common deltaic landform and they occur in se(eral ri(ers along the *estern and eastern Anited States coasts, the Seine 3i(er in 8rance, and the Ti er 3i(er in 1taly+ The ACE $asin of South Carolina, named for the Ashepoo, Com ahee, and Edisto 3i(ers, protects nearly !50,00 acres of unde(eloped estuary ha itat+
Dile 3i(er and Arcuate Delta
ACE $asin% Estuarine Delta

The Dile 3i(er forms an arcuate fan&shaped delta *here it drains into the 6editerranean Sea+ 1t is one of the largest deltas in the *orldK ho*e(er, it is currently disappearing ecause the upstream As*an @igh Dam is storing *ater and sediments and pre(enting them from eing deposited in the delta+ As a result the delta is eroding and salt*ater is encroaching into fresh*ater+ 5ther typical arcuate deltas include the Danu e 3i(er *here it enters the $lac, Sea in 3omania, and the Ganges and 1ndus 3i(er Deltas flo*ing into the $ay of $engal+
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Sea Cliffs
Sea cliffs are erosional landforms formed 3y the %nderc%tting action of the sea against the coastline, The eroded sea cliff 3ecomes notched inland ?here the ?a-es erode the coastline and e-ent%ally the o-erhanging land collapses into the ocean, This process ca%ses the sea cliff to slo?ly retreat inland eroding more and more of the coastline, <n %nde-eloped areas sea cliff related erosion does not pose a haIard, *nfort%nately e;tensi-e areas of the $alifornia and &regon coast are de-eloped near sea cliffs that are threatened 3y the erosi-e force of the .acific &cean,
Sea cliff
@eadlands
These sea cliffs in San 6ateo County, California formed from erosi(e *a(e action along the 4acific 5cean+ >hile they create spectacular scenery, they pose a large threat to homeo*ners that li(e near the retreating sea&cliff edge+ The u&shaped sea*ard e/tension on either side of the conca(e eroding sea cliff are referred to as headlands+
Source% ASGS
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Sea Arch
Sea arches form 3y erosi-e ?a-e refraction on opposite sides of a headland, The a3rasion from 3oth sides erodes an arch 3y opening a passage?ay thro%gh the headland, <f the arch erodes to the top of the headland, the sea?ard e;tension of the headland 3ecomes isolated from the coastline and forms a sea stac8, <n the 2a?aiian islands, sea arches may3e lin8ed 3y pre e;isting la-a t%3es that form ?ea8ness in the headlands, ?hich erode forming a sea arch, <n other places, sea arches may form along ?ea8nesses or 6ointing in the 3edroc8,
Sea arch from the @a*aiian 1slands
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4hoto% SCGS
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>a(e&Cut Scarps and 4latforms

7a-e c%t scarps are erosional cliff li8e feat%res formed 3y sea ?a-es 3rea8ing against a 3ase of a higher ele-ation coastline, The ?a-e c%t platform is a relati-ely flat 3ench li8e s%rface that is deposited 3y the eroded coastline, 7a-e c%t scarps and platforms often form in a progressi-e series, relati-e to long term en-ironmental changes, s%ch as sea le-el change and or tectonic %plift,
This *a(e&cut scarp and platform near $rigden, South >ales *as formed y the erosi(e action of the sea)s *a(es+ The smaller terraces et*een the scarp and the current sea&le(el may e(entually form another high&standing platform+
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Source% >i,imedia Commons
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5arine terraces are ?a-e c%t platforms that form a series of terraces that progressi-ely increase in ele-ation and age a?ay from the modern coastline, 5arine terraces %s%ally form as a res%lt of either sea le-el changes, tectonic %plifting, or a com3ination of 3oth processes, 5arine terrace are composed of shallo? to deep marine deposits and often contain fossil remains ?hich pro-ide a method for relati-e age dating, Scarps form the 3o%ndaries 3et?een s%ccessi-e marine terraces and often mar8 some indicator of landscapes response to en-ironmental changes,
6arine Terraces
The figure elo* illustrates the se7uence of eight marine terraces *hich form the Lo*er Coastal 4lain of South Carolina+ The oldest terrace sits at an ele(ation of a out 20 feet and the youngest terrace is ound y an acti(e scarp that is eing eroded y high&tide and rising sea&le(el+
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E Standards% 5&#+!, 5&#+2 Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2
Continental Shelf and Slope

The continental shelf is a s%3merged e;tension of the continental cr%st that slopes gently o%t?ard from the modern shoreline to the deep ocean 3asin, The continental shelf -aries in ?idth from 3eing almost non e;istent along some continental margins to e;tending o%t?ard for nearly 1!)) 8ilometers ((3) miles) in other places, &n a-erage it e;tends o%t?ard for a3o%t ") 8ilometers (!) miles) and has an a-erage slope of a3o%t 1 degree (+ metersO8ilometer or 1) feetOmile),
5cean floor features including continental shelf and slope+ This diagram pro(ides a good illustration of ho* the shelf is a shallo* e/tension of the continental crust+
Source% DASA, Bisi le Earth
A digital ele(ation model -DE6. of the continental shelf and slope near Los Angeles, California+
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Deep&5cean $asin
The deep ocean 3asins incl%des all areas of the ocean 3eyond the continental shelf and slope, and e;cl%ding mid ocean ridges, The a-erage depth is 3")) meters (1+,!)) feet), 3%t -aries considera3ly on acco%nt of shallo? -olcanic seamo%nts and deep trenches, The .acific &cean contains the largest ocean 3asins and acco%nts for nearly !)P of all salt ?ater on the :arth, The 9tlantic &cean contains the ne;t largest ocean 3asins, located on either side of the 5id 9tlantic 'idge, and also contains many shallo? seas incl%ding the $ari33ean, G%lf of 5e;ico, Baltic, and 5editerranean, The 9rctic and <ndian &cean contain the smallest 3asins, The deep ocean 3asin co-ers a3o%t 3)P of :arthDs s%rface, Trenches, -olcanic seamo%nts, and a3yssal plains are all part of the deep ocean 3asin,
This map includes a fe* of the ocean asins in southern hemisphere of the Atlantic 5cean+ The $ra0il and Argentina $asin are separated from the Angola $asin y the 6id&Atlantic 3idge+ 5n the *est coast of South America the 4acific 5cean $asin includes the 4eru&Chile Trench, formed y con(ergent oundary et*een the oceanic and continental su duction 0one+
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Deep&5cean $asin 8eatures
A yssal plains are nearly flat feat%re less s%rfaces and mayThe AS Da(y created this series of cartoon topography to illustrate 3e the most le-el areas on :arth, They are -ery flat 3eca%se a yssal plains, trenches, and they consist of massi-e acc%m%lations of sediment, seamounts+ deposited o-er the ocean floor that 3%ry the %nderlying topography, Bolcanic seamounts are s%3merged -olcanic mo%ntains, either acti-e or inacti-e, The occasionally protr%de a3o-e the s%rface, e;posing their pea8s, Trenches are deep ocean feat%res ?ere plates are s%3merging into the mantle, Trenches are associated ?ith -olcanic island arcs and areas of intense earthB%a8e acti-ity, 5arianas Trench in the So%th .acific &cean is the deepest trench, and is more than 3!,))) feet (1),66" meters), or almost 6,6 miles (1),6 8ilometers) deep, The =a-y do-e into the deepest part of this trench in 1an%ary 1(6)Q
Source% AS Da(y, author% Captain Deil 8+ 5TConnor, ASD -3et+.
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6id&5cean 3idges
5id ocean ridges are areas of sea floor spreading along di-ergent plate 3o%ndaries, =e? oceanic cr%st is formed along the narro? ridge crest, ?here magma rises and solidifies, 5id ocean ridges are characteriIed 3y linear, high ele-ation ridges, e;tensi-e fa%lting, and occasionally -olcanic acti-ity, The 5id 9tlantic 'idge e;tends almost the entire length of the =orth and So%th 9tlantic &cean and is one of the most prominent s%3terranean ocean floor feat%res, <t rises 3))) meters a3o-e the ocean 3asin floor and is closely monitored 3y scientists, The 5id <ndian 'idge is another prominent feat%re, and it is act%ally a contin%ance of the 5id 9tlantic 'idge system, stretching from 3elo? So%th 9frica %p to <ndia and :gypt,
The ASGS created this < ase all= graphic to illustrate the locations of the ma;or mid& ocean ridge systems+ The continuous line mar,s the location and orientation of the ridge, and the cross&stitching represents potential fault patterns along the ridges+ $ecause the ridges mar, plate oundaries they are more or less continuous, ut are differentiated y name relati(e to ocean asin or continental pro/imity+
Source% ASGS, *e resources
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3ift Sone
'ift Iones are fa%lt str%ct%res formed 3y normal fa%lts along acti-e 3o%ndaries, 'ising magma 3elo? the cr%st %p?ells, forcing the lithosphere to fract%re, as it fract%res and crac8s, one or more fa%lts occ%r ca%sing the roc8 layers to separate forming a rift -alley, 'ift -alleys can e-ent%ally form la8es or seas s%ch as the 'ed Sea, ?hich separates 9frica from the 9ra3ian .enins%la, 3ift Balleys in Africa
3ed Sea
La,e Bictoria
Copyright F200' Google Earth
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Continental Shelf and Slope% areas of tur7uoise colored continental crust around the continental margins
6id&5cean 3idges% oundary et*een di(ergent plate margins, indicates areas of sea& floor spreading
Aleutian Trench
6id&Atlantic 3idge
East African 3ift Balley and 3ed Sea

Curil Trench Gapan Trench 4hillipine Trench 6ariana Trench Ga(a&Sunda Trench
Guan de 8uca 3idge

Central America Trench
4uerto 3ico Trench
East 4acific 3ise

Tonga Trench Cermadec Trench 4eru&Chile Trench
4acific&Antartic 3idge
South Sand*ich Trench
1ndian 3idge
5cean $asin% all of the su merged ocean floor eyond continental shelf and slope, ut e/cluding trenches+
3ift Sone% tectonically acti(e areas of rifting that create ne* seas
Trenches% deep, narro* features along acti(e margins, trenches are dar, lue mar,ings located on the map ne/t to a pin, star < < Ta le of Contents 1))
Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+!, 5&#+5 Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2
Glacial Landforms

Glaciers are large masses of mo-ing ice, Beca%se glaciers are FfroIenG they are part of the :arthDs cryosphere, ?hich acco%nts for ## percent of all :arthDs fresh?ater, Glaciers are -ery sensiti-e to the slightest temperat%re changes, &-er :arthDs geologic history the spatial e;tent and siIe of glaciers has e;panded and shr%n8 n%mero%s times, 9s a res%lt, glacial landforms can 3e fo%nd in locations that c%rrently ha-e no acti-e glaciers or glaciation processes, .resently, glacial landforms occ%r in t?o distinct geographic regions, high latit%de polar en-ironments and high altit%de mo%ntain en-ironments, <n this section ?e ?ill e;plore glacial landforms from their present conte;t from a historic loo8 into the past, Alpineand Balley Glacier in Alas,a+
<ce sheets and 9lpine Glaciers <ce 0ield and <ce $aps .iedmont Glacier Tidal Glaciers and <ce3ergs Glacial * shaped 4alleys 06ords 2anging 4alleys $irB%es and $irB%e Glaciers 9rCtes, 2orns, $ols Lateral and 5edial 5oraines :nd and Terminal 5oraines .aternoster La8es >ettles :rratics Dr%mlins &%t?ash .lain
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Copyright F$ruce 6olnia, Terra 4hotographics
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Glaciers
Glaciers are large masses of Fflo?ingG ice formed 3y the acc%m%lation and compaction of recrystalliIed melted sno?, Glacial landforms are di-ided into t?o 3road categories ?hich occ%r in distinct geographic regions: ice sheets ?hich occ%r high latit%de polar en-ironments and alpine glaciers ?hich occ%r in high altit%de mo%ntain en-ironments,
1ce sheets are high latit%de polar glaciers that co-er e;tensi-e areas of continental landmasses, for this reason they are also referred to as F continental glaciersG, Glacial ice sheet formation reB%ires long periods of e;tremely lo? temperat%res, ?hich allo?s sno? to collect o-er -ast areas co-ering the %nderlying terrain, The acc%m%lation of sno? forms dense layers that are tho%sands of meters thic8, 9ntarctica and Greenland are 3oth almost completely co-ered 3y glacial ice sheets, Alpine glaciers are long, linear glaciers that occ%py high altit%de mo%ntain -alleys, for this reason they are also referred to as F(alley glaciersG, 9lpine glaciers flo? do?n -alley, and increase in siIe as they acc%m%late and a3sor3 smaller tri3%tary glaciers from the mo%ntaino%s terrain, 9lpine glaciers can 3e fo%nd all aro%nd the ?orld, and presently occ%r in may of the ma6or mo%ntain ranges in the ?orld incl%ding the 'oc8ies, 9ndes, and 2imalayas, 9lpine glaciers may also occ%r in high latit%de, polar or arctic mo%ntains, s%ch as those in 9las8a,
GeomorphologistDs often refer to glaciers as Fri-ers of iceG 3eca%se li8e ri-ers, continental and alpine glaciers Fflo?G do?n -alley thro%gh the landscape eroding, transporting, and depositing ?eathered materials along their the path, <t is this com3ination processes that forms the di-erse array of constr%cti-e and destr%cti-e glacial landforms, 1)+
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1ce Sheets and Alpine Glaciers

Glacier Dational 4ar, in the Anited States has een sculpted y alpine glacial processes o(er thousands of years+ Today, Glacier D4)s landscape contains (estiges of past glaciation, *ith only a fe* acti(e, high ele(ation alpine glaciers+ 3ecent temperature increases are melting glaciers at an alarming rate+ Scientist predict that y 20#0 there may not e any more glaciers in Glacier Dational 4ar,P The images elo* ta,en from the same location, E: years apart, sho*s the effects of climate change on glaciers+
Antarctic 1ce Sheet
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An ice sheet is a continuous *idespread, mass of glacial ice *hich lan,ets the entire landscape, and in their most e/tensi(e form, ice sheets may co(er an entire continent+ 1t is estimated that 20 percent of Antarctica and nearly '0 percent of Greenland are co(ered y ice sheets+ $oth of these ice sheets are so thic,, that portions the Earth)s crust elo* them are isostatically depressed, placing the actual landmass thousands of feet elo* sea&le(el+ As the ice melts and the *eight is remo(ed, the landmass *ill slo*ly re ound and rise ac, up to sea&le(el+ $oth the Antarctic 1ce Sheet and Greenland 1ce Sheet are o(er 2'00 feet thic, in some places, and the only landmasses e/posed are the highest ele(ation mountain pea,s+
2005
Source% ASGS
1)3
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1ce 8ield and 1ce Caps
1ce fields are elongate, contin%o%s e;panses of glacial ice ?hich follo? the topography of mo%ntains, <solated mo%ntain ridges and pea8s often protr%de o%t from the ice field, <ce field may feed alpine glaciers, 1ce caps are circ%lar shaped masses of glacial ice that co-er an area less than !),))) 8m+, <ce caps form in mo%ntain regions and they completely 3%ry the %nderlying topography, <ce caps are similar to ice sheets, only smaller,
Source% *i,imedia commons, DASA image
The high altitude en(ironments in Alas,a contain large ice fields that feed alpine glaciers+ 1n this picture, you can see the mountain pea,s protruding a o(e the ice field+ This image also contains e/ample of cre(asses, or crac,s, in glacial ice+
This aerial image of the Batna;U,ull 1ce Cap in 1celand has se(eral glaciers flo*ing out*ard from the ice cap+ DASA scientists monitor the effects of glo al *arming on this ice cap using satellite imagery+ Dotice ho* the ad(ancing glaciers are slightly dar,er colored than the ice sheet from the sediments and de ris they are transporting+ 1)/
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4iedmont Glacier
.iedmont glaciers are formed ?here m%ltiple -alley glaciers flo? o%t from the mo%ntaino%s terrain and coalesce into a singe large glacier, spreading o-er the lo?land topography, .iedmont glaciers contin%e to gro? as long as they are fed 3y -alley glaciers, .iedmont glaciers often so%rce ri-ers and streams that form from glacial melt ?ater and till deposits,
This piedmont glacier is part of the 6alaspina Glacier in Alas,a and is the largest piedmont glacier in the Anited States+ The 6ount Saint Elias mountains in the ac,ground are the source that feed this piedmont glacier+ The dar, ands in the photo mar, the lateral and medial moraines *here the (alley glaciers merged together+
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Tidal Glaciers and 1ce ergs

Tidal glaciers are the portion of either alpine or continental glaciers ?hich spill o%t into the sea and float on the s%rface of the salt?ater, The glacial ice o-er the ?ater 3rea8s 3y cal-ing off into large ice3ergs, <ce3ergs are large floating 3loc8s of ice that cal-ed off from tidal glaciers, <ce3ergs %s%ally cal-e off along cre-asses or crac8s in the ice, 3%t can also fail from a com3ination of melting and gra-itational p%ll, <ce3ergs -ary in siIe and thic8ness, and some reach heights more than 1)) feetQ
The ice ergs in the front of the photo cal(ed of from the tidal glacier in the ac,ground+ The portion of the ice ergs e/posed a o(e the *ater is often only a third of their entire si0e, the other t*o&thirds is su merged elo* the *ater+
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Glacial <A&Shaped= Balleys
Glacial -alleys are formed 3y the a3rasi-e action of glacial ice as it slo?ly car-es a F% shapedG path thro%gh the mo%ntaino%s -alleys, .rior to the formation of the glacier, most -alleys are initially formed as a FshapedG stream -alley eroded 3y flo?ing ?ater, &nce the -alleys 3ecomes occ%pied 3y the glacier, the glacial ice spreads from one side of the -alley to the other, completely filling in the -alley floor and %p the hill slopes, 9s the glaciers mo-es do?n -alley it a3rasi-ely erodes the pre formed F- shapedG stream -alley into a F% shapedG glacial -alley,
The Alas,aTs >ood*orth Glacier, on the left is eginning to retreat and e/pose a glacial u& shaped (alley eneath the melting ice+ The Sierra De(ada landscape *ith Losemite Balley pictured elo*, presently only contains glaciers in the highest ele(ations, ut many of the prominent u&shaped (alleys, re(eal past e(idence of glacial erosion+
Copyright F$ruce 6olnia, Terra 4hotographics Source% >i,imedia Commons
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8;ords
06ords are flooded tro%ghs that form ?here glacial % shaped -alleys intersect the ocean and the sea floods inland filling %p the -alley, 06ords can form d%ring acti-e glaciation or post glaciation depending on sea le-el, 7hen a glacier intersects the ocean, the glacier can contin%e to erode and car-e the -alley 3elo? sea le-el, The ?ater that fills in a3o-e the glacier and floods the -alley forms a f6ord, 06ords can also form post glaciation 3y rising sea le-el or changes in ele-ation along the coastline from melting ice,
5n the left is a glacier intersecting a f;ord in the 4acific 5cean off Estero de las 6ontanas in Chile, South America+ $elo* is an aerial (ie* of the 4rince >illiam Sound and Cascade Glacier f;ord in Alas,a+
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Copyright F 6ichael Collier, ASGS Copyright F 200' Google
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@anging Balleys
2anging -alleys are a3r%pt, cliff li8e feat%res that are formed at the confl%ence ?here smaller tri3%tary glaciers merge ?ith larger -alley glaciers, The sco%r of the larger glacier car-es the -alley into a % shape, remo-ing the original gradient of the tri3%tary confl%ence, as a res%lt the tri3%tary -alley is left stranded or FhangingG a3o-e the larger -alley, 2anging -alleys are only -isi3le after the glacier melts and re-eals the %nderlying topography, 2anging -alleys are often the sight of dramatic pl%nging ?aterfalls,
These images sho* hanging (alleys in t*o different periods+ $elo* the tri utary glacier is retreating and a *aterfall egins to form+ The image on the right is of a post&glacial hanging (alley, $ridal 8alls in Losemite Dational 4ar,+
@anging Balley
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Cir7ues and Cir7ue Glaciers

$irB%es are 3o?l shaped eroded, depressions near mo%ntain top ridges ?here sno? acc%m%lates and forms the head of an alpine glacier, Glaciers in this early phase of formation are often referred to as cirB%e glaciers, The confl%ence of m%ltiple cirB%e glaciers merges to form a -alley glaciers, $irB%e glaciers feed -alley glaciers a relati-ely steady so%rce of ne? sno?, 7hen glaciers retreat, the cirB%e is often the last part of the glacier to melt,
Cir7ue Glaciers
6ount 8air*eather in Alas,a contains se(eral cir7ues glaciers that feed into (alley glaciers that descend do*n the mountain+ This image sho*s t*o different cir7ue glaciers of (arying si0es feeding different (alley glaciers separated y cols and arVtes+ 1n post glacial landscapes, cir7ues may fill *ith *ater to form cir7ue la,es+
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ArVtes Cols and @orns
ArVtes are sa? tooth, serrated ridges in glacial mo%ntains, 9rCtes separate ad6acent cirB%es and ad6acent -alleys, 9rCte is 0rench for F8nife edgeG, and the ridges are appropriately namedQ Cols form ?hen t?o cirB%e 3asins on opposite sides of the mo%ntain erode the arCte di-iding them, $ols create saddles or passes o-er the mo%ntain, @orns are a single pyramidal pea8 formed ?hen the s%mmit is eroded 3y cirB%e 3asins on all sides, 2orns form ma6estic mo%ntain pea8s and create many challenges for ad-ent%ro%s clim3ers, 5atterhorn, in the S?iss 9lps, is a ?ell 8no?n horn,
@orn
Col ArVte
5n the left is a classic set of glacial landforms in the Chugach 6ountains, Alas,a+ 6any of the glaciers in this range are currently retreating and e/posing the erosi(e action of the glacial ice on the landscape+ $elo* is the famous 6atterhorn in the S*iss Alps+
Copyright F$ruce 6olnia, Terra 4hotographics SourceK >i,imedia commons
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Lateral and 6edial 6oraines Cennicott Glacier sho*s off multiple
5oraines are formed 3y the deposition of glacial till as the glacier melts, 5oraines are defined 3y ?here the glacial till ?as deposited relati-e to the mo-ing, melting glacier, The fo%r most common moraine types are lateral, medial, end, and terminal moraines, Lateral moraines are long linear ridges of glacial till deposited along the side of the glacier parallel to its direction of mo-ement, 6edial moraines are long linear ridges that form along the contact ?here tri3%tary glaciers ?ith lateral moraines merge to 6oin larger -alley glaciers, 5edial moraines form ?ere the glaciers merge together the till deposits 3ecome incorporated as dar8 ridges of sediment oriented do?n -alley and aligned parallel thro%gh the middle of the glacier,
Cennicott Glacier sho*s off multiple medial moraines as it descends 6ount $lac, urn in the >rangell&St+ Elias Dational 4ar, in Alas,a+
Copyright F 6ichael Collier, ASGS
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2
Terminal and End 6oraines
Terminal moraines are linear, conca-e, arc shaped depositional ridges that form at the termin%s of a glacier, The terminal moraine is formed 3y the deposits of glacial till that mar8 the o%t?ard e;panse or limit of glacial mo-ement , :-en if the glacier is no longer ad-ancing for?ard, it contin%es to transport ice and sediments to the termin%s, ?here the ice melts and the sediments 3o%nd %p in the ice are deposited as the terminal moraine, End moraines, also referred to as recessional moraines, are conca-e arc shaped ridges deposited 3y the melting glacier, They are similar to terminal moraines, e;cept that they are generally smaller, and they mar8 the grad%al retreat of the glacial ice after it has already deposited its terminal moraine,
Copyright F $ruce 6olnia, Terra 4hotographics
Bie* of the retreating Sch*an Glacier in the Chugach 6ountains of Alas,a+ The terminus is mar,ed y an out*ash plain and la,e formed from the melting sno*+ This image contains many classic glacial features, including u&shaped (alleys, hanging (alleys, arVtes, and end, terminal, medial, and lateral moraines+ 113
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4aternoster La,es
.atternoster la8es are a connected string of small, circ%lar la8es that occ%r in -alleys pre-io%sly occ%pied 3y glaciers, .atternoster la8es are post glacial erosional feat%res filled ?ith rain?ater or glacial melt?ater, The depressions ?here the la8es form are %s%ally the res%lt of either differential erosion of the 3edroc8, or the creation of small dams formed 3y glacial till deposits or end moraines, <nitially, melted glacial ice fills the depressions creating a string of la8es, &-er time, precipitation or springs pro-ide a rene?a3le so%rce of fresh?ater,
This string of patternoster la,es in this u&shaped (alley in the Sierra De(ada 6ountains of California pro(ides e(idence of past glaciations+ Glaciers ha(e occupied this (alley on and off o(er the last 2+5 million years during cooler ice age periods+ Glaciers may occupy these (alleys again in the future+
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Cettles
>ettles are small depressions in the landscape, often filled ?ith ?ater, that form post glaciation, >ettles form ?hen large 3loc8s of ice are left 3y a retreating glacier and the land s%rro%nding the a3andoned ice 3loc8 accretes from the acc%m%lation of glacial deposits, 9fter the ice 3loc8 melts, only a -oid or 8ettle remains, The 8ettle can also 3e deepened 3y the melting and s%3sidence of the gro%nd 3elo? ?here the ice 3loc8 pre-io%sly lay, >ettles formation is most common ?here glaciers retreat from the steep terrain and flo? into lo?er lying -alleys, >ettles may or may not form la8es, Those that contain ?ater are often so%rced 3y rainfall or sno?melt,
This small ,ettle *as formed y the melting and retreat of glacial ice from this (alley+ The ,ettle is surrounded y a small ridge formed y the deposition of glacial till from the melting ice loc,+ The presence of plants in the forefront of the image suggest that glaciers ha(e een a sent from this area for at least a couple decades and may e longer+
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Standards% #&#+5, #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Erratics
:rratics are large, isolated 3o%lders deposited 3y retreating, melting glaciers, They are post glacial depositional feat%res that pro-ide e-idence of past glaciations, 9s glaciers mo-e across the landscape they pic8 %p sediments 3y pl%c8ing them off the s%rface, This process incorporates sediments into the glacial ice and transports them do?n -alley, 7hen the glacier melts, these sediments are deposited, :rratics, are generally the largest roc8s left 3ehind 3y the retreating glaciers, They are generally smooth from glacial a3rasion and appear FmisplacedG in the landscape,
Losemite Balley is littered *ith glacial erratics, li,e the e/ample elo*, perched on Lam ert Dome+ This erratic is 7uite angular suggesting it *as only transported y the glacier for a short distance or amount of time+
The image a o(e is from a recently deposited glacial erratic+ Dotice ho* the erratic is still perched atop glacial ice, and there is a glacier retreating in the lo*er right corner of the image+ The person in front of the erratic pro(ides a relati(e scale for si0e+ 116
Source% >i,imedia Commons
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Drumlins
Dr%mlins are long, linear hills of glacial till deposited 3y ice sheets, The term Fdr%mlinG comes from the <rish ?ord Fdr%imG ?hich translates to ridge, Dr%mlins are similar to medial and lateral moraines, e;cept that they are %s%ally smaller and may 3e irreg%lar shaped relati-e to the direction of glacial mo-ement, Dr%mlin fields are areas ?ith n%mero%s dr%mlins,
The digital ele(ation model -DE6. on the right sho*s a large drumlin field *ith numerous drumlins all oriented in the same direction+ $elo* is a photo of a drumlin o(ergro*n *ith (egetation+ $oth of these e/amples are from De* Lor,, *here e/tensi(e glacial ice sheets once co(ered the northeast Anited States+
Source% >i,imedia Commons Source% >i,imedia Commons
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Glacial o%t?ash plains are e;tensi-e stratified deposits of glacial till 3elo? a glacier that %s%ally form 3raided streams, They are cho8ed ?ith glacial till and are fed 3y melt ?ater flo?ing from the 3ase of the glacier, &%t?ash plains form a complicated net?or8 of 3raided channels, flo?ing thro%gh a mess of glacial till sediment deposits, The streams partially sort the mess of sediments, transporting the finer materials f%rther do?nstream and lea-ing 3ehind the coarser till deposits, :s8ers form along melt ?ater channels that are emerging from t%nnels 3eneath the glacier, They are depositional ridges of sands and gra-el that mar8 the Fco%rseG of the melting glacier or co%rse of the melt ?ater t%nnel, :s8ers form interesting sin%o%s ridges across a landscape mar8ing the location of a melt ?ater t%nnels from a glacier,
5ut*ash 4lains and Es,ers
The out*ash plain elo* this glacier in the left image heads a raided ri(er that flo*s through the glacial till deposits+ The image elo* contains recently formed es,ers e/posed y the melted glacier+
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South Carolina Earth Science Education Standards% Grade #

Earth)s 6aterials and Changes% Standard #&#:The st%dent ?ill demonstrate an %nderstanding of :arthDs composition and the changes that occ%r to the feat%res of :arthDs s%rface, (:arth Science), 1ndicators% #&#+5% <ll%strate :arthDs salt?ater and fresh?ater feat%res (incl%ding oceans, seas, ri-ers, la8es, ponds, streams, and glaciers), #&#+E% <ll%strate :arthDs land feat%res (incl%ding -olcanoes, mo%ntains, -alleys, canyons, ca-erns, islands) 3y %sing models, pict%res, diagrams, and maps, #&#+'% <ll%strate changes in :arthDs s%rface that are d%e to slo? processes (incl%ding ?eathering, erosion, and deposition) and changes that are d%e to rapid processes (incl%ding landslides, -olcanic er%ptions, floods, and earthB%a8es),
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South Carolina Earth Science Education Standards% Grade 5

Landforms and 5ceans% Standard 5&#% The st%dent ?ill demonstrate an %nderstanding of feat%res, processes, and changes in :arthDs land and oceans, (:arth Science) 1ndicators% 5&#+!% :;plain ho? nat%ral processes (incl%ding ?eathering, erosion, deposition, landslides, -olcanic er%ptions, earthB%a8es, and floods) affect :arthDs oceans and land in constr%cti-e and destr%cti-e ?ays, 5&#+2% <ll%strate geologic landforms of the ocean floor (incl%ding the continental shelf and slope, the mid ocean ridge, rift Ione, trench, and ocean 3asin), 5&#+"% :;plain ho? ?a-es, c%rrents, tides, and storms affect the geologic feat%res of the ocean shore Ione (incl%ding 3eaches, 3arrier islands, est%aries, and inlets), 5&#+5% $ompare the mo-ement of ?ater 3y ?a-es, c%rrents, and tides,
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South Carolina Earth Science Education Standards% Grade '

Earth)s Structure and 4rocesses Standard '&#% The st%dent ?ill demonstrate an %nderstanding of materials that determine the str%ct%re of :arth and the processes that ha-e altered this str%ct%re, (:arth Science) 1ndicators% '&#+:% <ll%strate the creation and changing of landforms that ha-e occ%rred thro%gh geologic processes (incl%ding -olcanic er%ptions and mo%ntain 3%ilding forces), '&#+2% <dentify and ill%strate geologic feat%res of So%th $arolina and other regions of the ?orld thro%gh the %se of imagery (incl%ding aerial photography and satellite imagery) and topographic maps,
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3esources and 3eferences
$hristopherson, ', 7, +))/, :lemental Geosystems, / th :d, .rentice 2all, *pper Saddle 'i-er, =e? 1ersey, L%tgens, 0, >, and :, 1, Tar3%c8 +))3, :ssentials of Geology, " th :d, .rentice 2all, *pper Saddle 'i-er, =e? 1ersey, Smith, G, 9, and .%n, 9, +))6, 2o? does :arth 7or8R .hysical Geology and the .rocess of Science, .rentice 2all, *pper Saddle 'i-er, =e? 1ersey,
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Topography, Landforms, and Geomorphology

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Ta le of Contents " of "

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Landforms and Scale% Crustal 5rders of 3elief

8irst 5rder of 3elief%

Second 5rder of 3elief%

Third 5rder of 3elief%

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Crustal 5rders of 3elief

1+ 8irst 5rder or 3elief% Continental Landmasses and 5cean $asins

111+ Third 5rder of 3elief% Genetic Landform 8eatures

3i(ers and 8lood 4lains

1mages and 4hotos% SCGS

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Geomorphology is the process& ased study of landforms+

Standard% #&#+' Standard% '&#+:

Constructi(e and Destructi(e 4rocesses

Constructi(e processes uild landforms through tectonic and depositional processes+

5ther Agents and 4rocesses that Affect Landform De(elopment

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

Genetic Landform Classification

Standard% #&# Standard% 5&# Standard% '&#

6ountains% 5rogenesis and Deformation

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:

4hoto% South Carolina Geological Sur(ey

4hoto% South Carolina Geological Sur(ey

Standard% #&#+E, #&#+' Standard% '&#+:, '&#+2

Copyright F6ichael Le;eune

3ecum ent folds in limestone+

Copyright F6arli 6iller, Ani(ersity of 5regon

Standard% #&#+E, #&#+' Standard% '&#+:, '&#+2

4hoto% South Carolina Geological Sur(ey

5ffset in stream (alley from San Andreas 8ault mo(ement

4hoto% South Carolina Geological Sur(ey

8ractures and Goints

Standard% #&#+E, #&#+' Standard% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Domes and $asins

Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

@orst and Gra en% $asin and 3ange

Copyright F 6arli 6iller, Ani(ersity of 5regon

Standards% 5&#+!, 5&#+2 Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E Standards% '&#+2

6a;or 6ountain 3anges of the >orld

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

6odified from% http%IIen+*i,ipedia+orgI*i,iIAlps

Standards% #&#+E Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:

Bolcanic Landforms% E/trusi(e 1gneous

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

4hoto% D+ Little, ASGS

Courtesy ASGS @a*aiian Bolcano 5 ser(atory

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

ASGS Cascades Bolcano 5 ser(atory

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

Standards% #&#+E, #&#+' Standards% 5&#+! Standards% '&#+:, '&#+2

6odified from% http%IIen+i,ipedia+orgIi,iIAlps

@eadaters% multiple lo&order streams near drainage di(ide