Animal Reproduction

Textbook Chapter 25

Asexual Reproduction Occurs in the Animal Kingdom

Some simple animals are capable of asexual reproduction Budding is the process by hich a genetically identical miniature offspring gro s on the parent body and e!entually breaks off

"ydra and other cnidarians

Regeneration is the process by hich animals undergo fission# di!iding into multiple parts# and each part regenerates into a complete adult

$latyhelminthes# some annelids# and some echinoderms

%lat orm %ission and Regeneration

Sexual Reproduction Occurs in the Animal Kingdom

Sexual reproduction is the most common form of reproduction in the animal kingdom Sexual reproduction is the formation of offspring by the production and fusion of haploid gametes Sexual reproduction is ad!antageous because it allo s for the genetic !ariability ithin a species population Animal reproducti!e cycles are controlled by both en!ironmental and hormonal cues

Some animals only mate during certain seasons to ensure the sur!i!al of offspring Some animals release pheromones# hich are chemical signals that attract and influence the beha!ior of other indi!iduals of the same species

"o

do Animals Reproduce Sexually&

Animals can either reproduce by a form of external or internal fertili'ation (n external fertili'ation# sperm and eggs are released into a ater# in a process called spawning

The sperm must s im to fuse Often occurs

ith )elly*coated eggs

ith amphibious animals +frogs,

(n internal fertili'ation# the male directly deposits sperm into the female organism-s reproducti!e tract# called copulation

.ost often occurs humans

ith terrestrial animals# such as birds and

$arthenogenesis +Sexual,

$arthenogenesis is a type of sexual reproduction Parthenogenesis is the process by egg de!elops into a haploid adult hich an unfertili'ed

Sometimes# the unfertili'ed haploid egg can de!elop into a diploid adult (t is possible the parthenogenesis plays a role in the social organi'ations of certain species $arthenogenesis mostly occurs in some arthropod species# such as some kinds of bees# and some marine species

"ermaphroditism

.any sessile or burro ing animals reproduce using hermaphroditism This is because these types of animals may ha!e troubles encountering mates due to the nature of their en!ironment Hermaphroditism is hen an indi!idual has both male and female reproducti!e structures and functions (f a mate is not found# hermaphrodites can self*fertili'e to create ne offspring

The offspring are not al ays identical to the parent due to crossing o!er and independent assortment during meiosis (

/hen gi!en the opportunity# hermaphroditic animals mate hermaphrodites of the same species

ith other

0ach indi!idual donates and recei!es sperm 0arth orms sexually mate through exchanging gametes of both sexes through the clitellum

"uman Reproduction

The organs that produce sex cells are called gonads Sexual maturity and de!elopment occurs during puberty

Characteri'ed by reproducti!e functionality# rapid gro th# and secondary sex characteristics +pubic hair# deep !oice# etc1,

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone +2nR", is responsible for the production of 3" and %S"# t o other hormones responsible for reproducti!e function Luteinizing hormone +3", plays a role in the production of testosterone in males and oogenesis in females Follicle Stimulating hormone +%S", nourishes sertoli cells in males and plays a role in oogenesis in females

Testosterone and 0strogen

Testosterone and 0strogen are the primary human sex hormones# and are present in both sexes They are lipid hormones estosterone is the primary sex hormone in males4

Responsible for parts of spermatogenesis 0nlarges testes and penis during puberty 3arynx enlargement deeper !oice .uscle enlargement 0nlarged breasts .enstruation

!strogen is the primary sex hormone in females4

.ale 2onads

The male gonads are the testes# hich lie outside of the body in a sac called the scrotum

This allo s for the optimal temperature for spermatogenesis

The testes consist of many coiled seminiferous tubules# hich is the site of spermatogenesis Leydig +interstitial, cells lie bet een seminiferous tubules# and produce testosterone Sperm created in the testes tra!el through the epididymis# hich are coiled tubules that connect the testes to the !as deferens

Sperm continue maturity and gain motility in the epdidymis

.ale Reproducti!e 5ucts

The ducts of the male reproducti!e system propel sperm from the epididymis out of the penis during e"aculation 5uring e)aculation# sperm from the epididymis tra!el through the #as deferens The !as deferens )oins a duct from the seminal !esicle called the e"aculatory duct

5ifferent accessory glands secrete substances into the sperm hile it is tra!eling through the e)aculatory duct

The e)aculatory duct merges ith the urethra# leads out of the body through the penis

hich

.ale Accessory Organs

There are three main glands that secrete substances into sperm as it tra!els through the e)aculatory duct

The combination of sperm# produces semen

ater# and gland secretions

The seminal #esicle adds mucus# fructose# coagulating en'yme# ascorbic acid# and prostaglandins to semen The prostate gland adds anticoagulant en'ymes and citrate to semen The bulbourethral glands secrete mucus prior to e)aculation# hich neutrali'es acidic urine remaining in the urethra

Semen

Semen is a mixture of sperm# glands

ater# and secretions from accessory

A male usually e)aculates 2*5 m3 of semen# each m3 containing 56* 786 million sperm Semen is slightly basic# hich neutrali'es the acidic !agina $rostaglandins in the semen stimulate light uterine contractions that push the sperm further inside the female tract %ructose from the seminal !esicle pro!ide some nourishment for the sperm inside the female Coagulants make it easier for contractions to mo!e sperm Anticoagulants li9uefy semen so that sperm can start s imming

$enis

The penis is an accessory organ that deposits sperm into the female-s !agina during copulation The penis does not contain bone (n order for the penis to be inserted into the !agina# it needs to be stiffened# or erect# compared to flaccid 0rection is caused by the engorgement of the penis blood arteries dilate# !eins constrict

ith

The most sensiti!e part of the penis is the glans +head,

Responsible for most stimulation and excitement

The shaft of the penis is co!ered by foreskin that can be remo!ed through circumcision

%emale 2onads

The female gonads are the o#aries The o!aries contain about :66#666 follicles

0ach follicle is an egg cell surrounded by follicle cells %ollicle cells produce estrogen and nourish the egg cell The number of follicles is predetermined at birth Only se!eral hundred of those follicles ill release eggs

One follicle matures each menstrual cycle and o#ulation occurs# in hich the follicle bursts and the egg is released ith a fe follicle cells surrounding it The remaining follicle tissue in the o!ary de!elops the corpus luteum

Secretes estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy

hich helps maintain uterine lining

(f pregnancy does not occur# the corpus luteum disintegrates

O!iduct# ;terus# Cer!ix# <agina

The o!ulated egg is released into the o#iduct +fallopian tube,# hich has cilia that mo!e the egg into the uterus The uterus is the place of fetal de!elopment if fertili'ation occurs (f fertili'ation occurs# the egg buries itself in the endometrium of the uterus# hich ill e!entually form the placenta The cer!ix opens the uterus into the !agina The #agina is a thin alled chamber that is the birth canal and the site here sperm is deposited The clitoris is a flap on the !agina that pro!ides stimulation

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm# and occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes Spermatogenesis is aided by sertoli cells# hich pro!ide nourishment and gro th regulation of sperm# and leydig +interstitial, cells# hich synthesi'e testosterone 5iploid spermatogonia gro through mitosis to produce one other spermatogonium and one diploid primary spermatocyte# hich ill e!entually gi!e rise to sperm $rimary spermatocytes go through meiosis ( to form t o haploid secondary spermatocytes 0ach secondary spermatocyte goes through meiosis (( to form a total of four haploid spermatids Spermatids differentiate into sperm

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21 81 :1

"ormones in Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is re9uires nourishment and regulation from sertoli cells and testosterone "ormonal processes in!ol!ed are regulated by negati!e feedback loops The hypothalamus releases 2nR"# release 3" and %S" hich stimulates the anterior pituitary to

3" stimulates Leydig cells +interstitial, to produce testosterone %S" stimulates sertoli cells to nourish de!eloping sperm Testosterone is also essential for sperm de!elopment Stimulated sertoli cells also release inhibin a hormone that inhibits the production of 3" and %S" from the anterior pituitary gland Testosterone made by the 3eydig cells inhibits the production of 2nR" from the hypothalamus and the production of 3" and %S" from the anterior pituitary gland

Sperm Structure

Sperm contains three parts4 head# midpiece# and the tail The head is composed primarily of the haploid nucleus and the acrosome The acrosome contains en'ymes that aid in penetrating the egg-s protecti!e follicle cells The acrosome also ensures that the egg is being fertili'ed by the same species The midpiece is composed of mainly mitochondria# hich pro!ides energy# and a centriole# hich pro!ides the microtubule for the tail The tail# or flagellum# is composed of microtubules that help the sperm s im

Oogenesis
71 21

$ogenesis is the production of eggs and occurs in the female gonads# the o!aries (n oogenesis# the number of follicles are predetermined before birth# hich de!elop into eggs Oogenesis is aided by follicle cells# estrogen# and progesterone# 3"# %S" 5uring embryonic de!elopment# diploid oogonium go through differentiation to produce the diploid primary oocyte# hich is arrested in prophase of meiosis ( The primary oocyte completes meiosis ( to produce the haploid secondary oocyte# hich is arrested at metaphase of meiosis ((# and the first polar body# hich contains unnecessary genetic material 5uring this time# the secondary oocyte bursts from its follicle cells and tra!els do n the o!iduct %ertili'ation triggers the completion of meiosis ((# to form the o#um and the second polar body# hich contains unneeded genetic material

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%emale .enstrual Cycle

%emales ha!e a menstrual cycle# hich is the coordination of o!ulation and uterine preparation# that is controlled by hormones ;sually a 2= day cycle (f pregnancy does not occur# the menstrual cycle sheds the endometrium of the uterus 5ay 74 menstrual flow phase4 bleeding lasts a fe days 5ay 54 proliferati#e phase4 regeneration and thickening of the endometrium> 7*2 eeks 5ay 7:4 secretory phase4 increased endometrial thickening# !asculari'ation# and secretion of sugary fluid> lasts about 2 eeks> time hen egg reaches the uterus

O!arian Cycle and "ormones

The o#arian cycle is the de!elopment and release of the secondary spermatocyte Follicular phase4 egg de!elops and enlarges> follicle cells thicken> ends ith o#ulation# the process in hich the follicle ruptures from the o!ary and the secondary spermatocyte is released

Only one follicle de!elops# the others disintegrate 2nR" stimulates secretion of %S" and 3" %S" stimulates follicles to secrete estrogens stimulates endometrial thickening The estrogens stimulate production of more 2nR" This causes a !ery high secretion of 3"# follicles and causes o!ulation hich completely matures

After o!ulation# 3" stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum

O!arian Cycle and "ormones

Luteal phase4 the remaining follicle cells in the o!ary de!elops into the corpus luteum

The corpus luteum produces estrogens and progesterone The estrogens and progesterone de!elop and maintain the endometrium At the end of the luteal phase# the corpus luteum disintegrates# unless the female is pregnant
$rogesterone and estrogen le!els drop abruptly and the endometrium sheds

0gg Structure

The secondary oocyte# the egg# is surrounded by follicle cells that ere ruptured ith it during o!ulation These follicle cells form the corona radiata The )elly*like layer under the corona radiata is called the zona pellucida# and it forms a barrier bet een the sperm and the egg ;nderneath the 'ona pellucida is the #itelline layer# to hich cortical granules are attached The cortical granules are released during fertili'ation and ser!e an important role in the pre!ention of double fertili'ation

"uman Copulation and Sex Response

(n order for human copulation to occur# the penis must become erect# or stiffened# so that it can be inserted into the !agina %asocongestion is the filling of tissue ith blood# and is hat causes erections in males and also occurs in females &yotonia is increased muscle tension# and is a result of psychological sexual excitement !xcitement4 preparation of the !agina and penis for copulation

'(

<asocongestion of the penis and clitoris> enlargement of the testes# labia and breasts .yotonia may result in nipple erection and muscle tension

"uman Copulation and Sex Response

)(

Plateau4 the ?midsection@ of human copulation

Autonomic system increases breathing and heart rate (n females# the !agina goes through minor shape changes in preparation for recei!ing sperm Rhythmic# in!oluntary contractions of reproducti!e structures and abdominal muscles Characteri'ed by feelings of intense pleasure (n males# follo ed by e)aculation Orgasm in females is not necessary for fertili'ation Aoth caused by oxytocin in the sympathetic ner!ous system <asocongested organs return to normal si'es and muscles relax

*(

$rgasm4 the climax of the sex response

+(

Resolution4 re!erse of earlier responses

%ertili'ation

Fertilization is the process in

hich sperm fuses

ith egg

%ertili'ation occurs in the fallopian tube Only one sperm can normally fertili'e an egg# and there are cellular mechanisms to pre!ent polyspermy# hich is the fertili'ation of an egg by multiple sperm The sea urchin is our model for cellular fertili'ation processes

%ertili'ation4 Acrosomal Reaction

(n the first step of fertili'ation# sperm cells s9uee'e in bet een follicle cells to reach to 'ona pellucida The sperm releases the contents of its acrosome# contains hydrolytic en'ymes hich

The hydrolytic en'ymes eat a ay at the 'ona pellucida and allo the sperm to penetrate the outer layers The plasma membrane of the sperm fuses ith that of the egg-s# and the sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm

%ertili'ation4 Cortical Reaction

The egg cell has multiple mechanisms to pre!ent polyspermy As soon as the sperm and egg cytoplasm fuse# BaC channels in the egg-s cytoplasm open# depolari'ing the egg and pro!iding a fast bloc, to polyspermy Also# the fusion of the membranes trigger a cortical reaction

Ca2C from the 0R is released into the cytosol This causes other ion gates in the 0R to release Ca2C The high concentrations of Ca2C cause cortical granules to fuse ith the plasma membrane and release its contents into the space bet een the !itelline layer and the plasma membrane An osmotic gradient is created# hich dra s in ater and pushes the !itelline layer a ay from the plasma membrane The other contents of the cortical granules cause the !itelline layer to harden# hich pro!ides slow bloc, to polyspermy

Contraception

-ontraception is the pre!ention of pregnancy The most effecti!e long*term# and permanent contraception method is sterilization# in hich the ducts that sperm and eggs tra!el in are interrupted

.en4 #asectomy !as deferens /omen4 tubal ligation uterine tube

Temporary contraception methods are di!ided into three general categories4

$re!enting o!ulation hormonal methods $re!enting fertili'ation barrier methods $re!enting implantation hormonal methods

$re!ent O!ulation Contraception

&ethod Airth Control pill &echanism $ill containing estrogen and progesterone> daily intake Skin patch ith synthetic hormones> replaced eekly (n)ection of synthetic progesterone that blocks o!ulation> replace 8 months $lastic ring ith hormones inserted into the !agina# replace e!ery : eeks Failure Rate 617D E 618D S . Protection BO

Contracepti!e $atch

F7D

BO

Contracepti!e (n)ection

618D

BO

Contracepti!e Ring

7D * 2D

BO

Aarrier Contraception
&ethod .ale Condom %emale Condom &echanism Thin latex sheath placed o!er the penis 3atex pouch inserted into !agina to pre!ent sperm from entering cer!ix 5isposable sponge ith spermicide inserted into !agina 0stimating time of o!ulation and a!oiding intercourse during that time %oam put in !agina prior to intercourse Failure Rate 2D * 72D 5D * 25D S . Protection 2ood $artial

Sponge

76D * 75D

$artial

Rhythm

2D * 26D +non* reliable, GD * 27D

Bone

Spermicide

$artial

(mplantation $re!ention Contraception

&ethod (ntrauterine 5e!ice .orning After $ill &echanism Small plastic de!ice ith hormones and inserted into the uterus Concentrated does of hormones> taken H2 hours after intercourse Failure Rate 61GD * 21GD S . Protection BO

25D

BO