Evaporation: (a) from water surface, i.e., reservoirs, lakes, ponds, river channels, etc.

(b) from soil surface, appreciably when the ground water table is very near the soil surface. Transpirationfrom plant leaves. Evapotranspiration for consumptive usefrom irrigated or cropped land. Infiltrationinto the soil at the ground surface. Watershed leakageground water movement from one basin to another or into the sea.

Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil are of great importance in hydrometerological studies. (?) Evaporation from water surfaces The factors affecting evaporation are air and water temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, surface area (exposed), barometric pressure and salinity of the water.

Not : The a minor effect of evaporation are barometric pressure and salinity of the water

This is done by the following methods Using evaporimeters Using empirical equations Using analytical methods

Evaporimeters These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily). Meteorological data such as humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and noted along with evaporation.

255 mm

150 mm

WMO recommends the following values of minimum density of evaporimeters Arid Zones 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km Humid Temperate Zones 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km Cold regions 1 station for every 1,00,000 sq.km A typical hydro-meteorological station has the following: Recording raingauge and non-recording raingauge Stevenson box with maximum, minimum, wet, and dry bulb thermometers Wind anemometer and wind vane Pan evaporimeter Sunshine Recorder etc

Daltons law of evaporation

The rate of evaporation is a function of the differences in vapour pressure at the water surface and in the atmosphere, and the Daltons law of evaporation is given by .

Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect

(1) Water Budget Method

can only be measured

The following are some of the methods of estimating evapotranspiration: (i) Tanks and lysimeter experiments (ii) Field experimental plots (iii) Installation of sunken (colarado) tanks (iv) Evapotranspiration equations as developed by Lowry-Johnson, Penman, Thornthwaite, BlaneyCriddle, etc. (v) Evaporation index method, i.e., from pan evaporation data as developed by Hargreaves and Christiansen.

However, two well known discussed here. (i) Blaney-Criddle method.

methods

are

(ii) Evaporation Index method..

This method is used throughout the world for the consumptive use determinations and is given by :

Analysis of data on consumptive use indicate a high degree of correlation between pan
vaporation values and consumptive use. The relationship between the evapotranspiration (Et) and pan evaporation (Ep) is usually

expressed as

Water entering the soil at the ground surface is called infiltration. Infiltration is important for: Soil water recharge (e.g., for plants) Groundwater recharge River base flow Contaminant movement builds up the ground water table.

f0 f fc infiltration
when

ft=fc+(f0-fc)e

-kt

i f i< f

time t

fa=f fa=i

where, fa=actual infiltration rate f =infiltration capacity i =intensity of rainfall infiltration capacity at time t after the beginning of the storm ft=fc+(f0-fc)e kt where, fo =initial infiltration capacity fc =limiting constant value of the infiltration The values of fc, fo and k depends upon the type and condition of soil

soil moisture type of soil medium permeability vegetal cover compaction of soil available storage in soil stratum depth of surface detention temperature of water other factors

2. Rainfall simulator-type infiltrometer

Single Ring

Double Ring

An average constant value of infiltration is called infiltration index. Two types of infiltration indices are commonly used.-index 1. -index 2. w index There are extremely used for the analysis of major floods when the soil is wet and the infiltration rate becomes constant

The value of f-index can be derived from the rainfall hyetograph and the resulting surface runoff volume by trial and error.

The unshaded area below the horizontal line is assumed that all losses are due to infiltration only. For determination of - index, a horizontal line is drawn on the hyetograph such that the shaded area above that line is equal to the volume of surface runoff. If the shaded area is not equal to the volume of measured surface runoff, the horizontal line is shifted upwards or downwards till this condition is satisfied.

w-index=(P-R-S)/tf
where P=total storm precipitation (cm) R=total surface runoff (cm) S=depression and interception losses (cm) The w-index is more accurate than the -index because it excludes the interception and depression tf=time period (in hours)

For a storm of 3-hr duration, the rainfall rates are as follows

Time period (min)

Rainfall rate (cm/hr)

30
1.4

30
3.4

30
4.8

30
3.2

30
2.0

30
1.2

If the surface runoff is 3.4 cm, determine the -index and w-index. Solution

Assume that f-index is more than 1.4 cm/hr. Therefore, surface runoff R=[(3.4-)+(4.8-)+(3.2-)+(2.0-)]30/60 3.40=6.7-2 =1.65 cm/hr As the computed value of f-index is greater than 1.4 cm/hr, the assumption was total precipitation P=(1.4+3.4+4.8+3.2+2.0+1.2)30/60 =8 cm W-index=(P-R-S)/tf, assume S = 0 =(8.0-3.4)/3.0 =1.53 cm/hr