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Chapter 21:
Theory of Metal Machining
Rizwan M. Gul
NWFP UET
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THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
Overview of Machining Technology
Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Cutting Temperature
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Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common feature
of which is removal of material from a starting
workpart so the remaining part has the desired shape
Categories:
Machining mechanical material removal by a
sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes mechanical material
removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
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Machining
A sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to
leave the desired part shape
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)
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Why Machining is Important?
The industrial revolution and the growth of the manufacturing
based economies of the world can be traced to the
development of various machining operations
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently applied to metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometry features
possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy (Tolerances 0.025 mm)
Excellent surface finish (Roughness less than 0.4 microns)
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Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming

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Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the
starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
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Machining Technology
Machining is not just one process; it is group of
processes
All the processes use a cutting tool to form a chip that
is removed from the workpart
Relative motion is required between the tool and
work
This relative motion is achieved by means of a
primary motion called the speed and a secondary
motion called the feed
The shape of the tool and its penetration into the
work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired shape of the resulting work
surface
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Machining Operations
There are many kinds of machining operations, each
of which is capable of generating a certain part
geometry and surface texture
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
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Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
The speed motion is provided by the rotating work
part and feed motion is given to the tool
Figure 21.3 (a) turning
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Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges
(b) drilling
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Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to
work to generate plane or straight surface
The speed motion is provided by the rotating cutter while the
direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool axis of
rotation
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Figure 21.3 - (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling
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Cutting Tool Classification
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges with
many angles e.g. rake angle, relief angle etc.
The two basic types of cutting tools are:
1. Single-Point Tools
One cutting edge
Turning uses single point tools
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work usually achieved by
rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools.
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Figure 21.4 - (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges
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Cutting Conditions in Machining
Relative motion is required between tool and work to
perform a machining operation
The three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original
work surface
V, f & d are collectively called as cutting conditions
For certain operations, material removal rate can be
found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

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Cutting Conditions for Turning
Figure 21.5 - Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning
operation
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Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
Machining operations usually divide in two categories,
distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two finishing
cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material from
the starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
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Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations
Machine tools are operated by human operators or
numerical controls
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Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Although an actual machining process is three-dimensional,
the orthogonal model has only two dimensions that play
active role in the analysis
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Orthogonal Cutting Model (Contd.)
Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the
cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of the cutting
speed
As tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by
shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane,
which is oriented at an angle | with the surface of the
work
Along the shear plane the material is plastically deformed,
and at the sharp cutting edge of the tool failure of the
material occur, resulting in separation of the chip from the
parent material
The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of
geometry, rake angle (o) and clearance angle
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Chip Thickness Ratio
The position of the cutting tool below the original work
surface corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior
to the chip formation t
o
As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its
thickness is increased to t
c


where r = chip thickness ratio or chip ratio;
t
o
= thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
and t
c
= chip thickness after separation
Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before,
so chip ratio is always less than 1.0
c
o
t
t
r =
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Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle | can be determined
as:

where r = chip ratio, and o = rake angle
o
o
|
sin
cos
tan
r
r

=
1
) cos(
sin
o |
|

=
s
s
l
l
r
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Figure 21.7 - Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear
strain triangle used to derive strain equation
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Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed from the
following equation, based on the preceding parallel
plate model:


= tan(| - o) + cot |
where = shear strain, | = shear plane angle, and o
= rake angle of cutting tool
BD
DC AD
BD
AC +
= =
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Figure 21.8 - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone
rather than shear plane (the thickness is few thousands of an inch). Also
shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction
Actual Chip Formation
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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
The formation of the chip depends on the type of
material being machined and the cutting conditions
of the operation. Four basic types of chip can be
distinguished:
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
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Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of
cut
High tool-chip friction
and large feed and depth
of cut promote its
formation

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting:
(a) segmented
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Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
Low tool-chip friction

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting:
(b) continuous
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Continuous with BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off
Reduces tool life and causes
rough surfaces
Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built-up edge
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Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
Most closely associated
with difficult-to-machine
metals (titanium alloys
and nickel based super
alloys etc.) at high
cutting speeds

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting: (d)
serrated
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Forces in Metal Cutting
The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually perpendicular
components:
The friction force F resisting the flow of the chip
along the rake face, and normal force to friction N
The resultant of forces F & N is R and is oriented
at an angle | called the friction angle
In addition, there are two force components applied
by the workpiece on the chip:
The shear force R
s
is the force that causes shear
deformation to occur in the shear plane and
normal force to shear F
n

The resultant of R
s
and F
n
is R'
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Forces Acting on Chip
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force F
s
and Normal force to shear F
n

Figure 21.10 -
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting
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Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of F
s
and F
n
= resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R' must be opposite in direction to R
R' must be collinear with R

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Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
follows:
N
F
=
| tan =
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Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
| sin
w t
A
o
s
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
s
s
A
F
S =
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Cutting Force and Thrust Force
Forces F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured by a
dynamometer:
Cutting force F
c
and Thrust force F
t
The resultant is R''
Figure 21.10 - Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
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Forces in Metal Cutting
Equations can be derived to relate the forces that
cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = F
c
sino + F
t
coso
N = F
c
coso - F
t
sino
F
s
= F
c
cos| - F
t
sin|
F
n
= F
c
sin| + F
t
cos|
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined
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The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
could occur, the work material will select a shear
plane angle | which minimizes energy, given by


Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining
Based on several assumptions so only provides an
approximate of the shear plane angle
2 2
45
| o
| + =
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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
To increase shear plane angle
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
2 2
45
| o
| + =
The real value of the Merchant equation is that it
defines the general relationship between rake angle,
tool-chip friction, and shear plane angle
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Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all
of which mean easier machining
Figure 21.12 - Effect of shear plane angle| : (a) higher | with a
resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller | with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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Power and Energy Relationships
A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed
from:
P
c
= F
c
v
where P
c
= cutting power; F
c
= cutting force; and v =
cutting speed
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by
33,000)
000 33,
v F
HP
c
c
=
where HP
c
= cutting horsepower, hp
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Power and Energy Relationships
The gross power required to operate the machine
tool is greater than the power delivered to the cutting
process because of mechanical losses in the motor
and drive train in the machine
Gross power to operate the machine tool P
g
or HP
g
is
given by

or
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools = ~ 90%
E
P
P
c
g
=
E
HP
HP
c
g
=
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Unit Power and specific Energy in Machining
Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut
Called the unit power, P
u
or unit horsepower, HP
u


or
where MRR = material removal rate
MRR
P
P
c
u
=
MRR
HP
HP
c
u
=
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
w t
F
w vt
v F
MRR
P
P U
o
c
o
c c
u
= = = =
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm
3
or J/mm
3

(in-lb/in
3
)
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Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power and specific energy provides a useful
measure of how much power (or energy) is required
to remove one cubic inch of metal during machining
Table in the next slide presents listing of unit
horsepower and specific energy values for selected
work materials based on two assumptions:
The cutting tool is sharp (dullness increases
required energy)
The chip thickness before the cut is 0.25 mm
(smaller chip thickness increases required energy)
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Unit Horsepower and specific energy for selected work materials
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EXAMPLE 21.1:
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting
tool has a rake angle =10
o
. The chip thickness before the cut t
o
=0.50 mm
and the chip thickness after the cut t
c
=1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane
angle and the shear strain in the operation
EXAMPLE 21.2:
Suppose in Ex 21.1that cutting force and thrust force are measured during
an orthogonal cutting operation with values: F
c
=1559 N and F
t
=1271 N.
The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w=3.0 mm. Based on these
data, determine the shear strength of the work material.
EXAMPLE 21.3:
Using the data and results from our previous examples, compute (a) the
friction angle using the Merchant equation, and (b) the coefficient of friction.
EXAMPLE 21.4:
Continuing with our previous examples, let us determine cutting power and
specific energy required to perform the machining process if the cutting
speed =100 m/min. Summarizing data and results from previous examples,
t
o
=0.50 mm, w=3.0 mm, F
c
=1557 N.
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Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is
converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
tool-chip (over 600
o
C)
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip
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Cutting Temperature
Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various work
materials
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =
specific energy; v = cutting speed; t
o
= chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
333 0
4 0
.
.
|
.
|

\
|
=
K
vt
C
U
T
o

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Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
Using this method, K. Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K v
m

where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature
The parameters K and m depend on cutting
conditions (other than v) and work material
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Cutting Temperature