UNIT- 4

WHAT IS QUALITY?????
Quality is the ability of a product or service
to consistently meet or exceed customer
Expectations.

The degree of excellence of a thing
(Websters Dictionary)

DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY
1. Performance - characteristics of the product or service
2. Aesthetics- appearance, feel, smell, taste
3. Special features - extra characteristics
4. Conformance - customers expectations
5. Safety - risk of injury or harm
6. Reliability - consistency of performance
7. Durability - useful life of the product or service
8. Perception - reputation
9. Service after the sale - handling of complaints,
customer satisfaction
THE DETERMINANTS OF QUALITY
O Quality of Design - intention of designers to
include or exclude features in a product or
service designed to meet a customer/client
need/want/requirement.- it represents the inherent
value of the product or service in the marketplace
O Poor design can result in manufacturing or
service problems
Customer disapproval

CONT.
O Quality conformance - the degree to which the
goods or services conform to the intent of the
designers
Requires customer education/awareness as to
the intended use of the product/service (e.g.
Electrical requirements, medication instructions,
attorney advice)
O Ease of use
O Service after delivery
FITNESS FOR CONSUMER USE
BENEFITS OF QUALITY
O Higher customer satisfaction
O Reliable products/services
O Better efficiency of operations
O More productivity & profit
O Better morale of work force
O Less wastage costs
O Less Inspection costs
O Improved process
O More market share
O Spread of happiness & prosperity
O Better quality of life for all.

COSTS OF QUALITY
O When considering the costs of quality we must consider:

O Failure costs - costs caused by defective parts, products, or
faulty services
. Internal - failures discovered during production (e.g. rework,
problems, material/product losses, downtime)
. External - failures discovered after delivery (e.g. warranty,
returned goods, liability claims, penalties)
O Appraisal costs - costs of activities designed to ensure quality or
uncover defects (e.g. in-line inspection, final inspection, field
testing, crash test dummies, crumpled cars)
O Prevention costs - costs of preventing defects from occurring
(e.g. training, working with vendors, quality control procedures,
quality improvement programs, extra attention in design and
production)
DEMINGS 14 POINTS
O Create constancy of purpose
O Adopt philosophy of prevention
O Cease dependence on inspection
O Do not award business based on price tag alone
O Constantly improve system and workers
O Institute worker training
O Adopt and institute leadership
CONT..
O Eliminate fear among employees
O Eliminate barriers between departments
O Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets
O Remove numerical quotas
O Enhance worker pride
O Institute vigorous training & education programs
O Take action to accomplish the transformation
THE PDCA CYCLE
Do
Check
Act
Plan
PDCA CYCLE- SEVEN STEPS OR PHASES
O Identify the opportunity
O Analyze the current process
O Develop the optimal solution (s)
O Implement changes
O Study the results
O Standardize the solution
O Plan for the future.


CONTINUOUS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT CYCLE
Phase I Identify the Opportunity

Phase 2
Analyze the process


Phase 3
Develop the optimal solution(s)

Phase 4 Implementation
Phae 5 Study the results

Phase 7
Plan for the future


Phase 6
Standardise the solution

Act Plan
Check Do
QUALITY CIRCLE
O Voluntary groups of employees who work on similar
tasks or share an area of responsibility
O They agree to meet on a regular basis to discuss & solve
problems related to work.
O They operate on the principle that employee
participation in decision-making and problem-solving
improves the quality of work

OBJECTIVES OF QC
O Change in Attitude
O Self development
O Development of self spirit
O Improved organizational culture


STRUCTURE OF QUALITY CIRCLE
A steering committee
Co-ordinator
Facilitator
Circle leader
Circle members
THE OPERATION OF QUALITY CIRCLE
1. Problem identification
2. Problem selection
3. Problem Analysis
4. Generate alternative solutions
5. Select the most appropriate solution
6. Prepare plan of action
7. present solution to management for approval.
8. Implementation of solution
BASIC PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES/ 7QC
TOOLS
The following techniques are most commonly
used to analyse and solve work related
problems.
o Pareto chart
OHistogram
OFlow diagram
OCheck sheet
OScatter diagram
OControl chart
ORun chart
OCause and effect diagram


HISTOGRAM
O Histograms are graphical frequency tables that
visually capture and display the variation in a set of
data.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1 2 6 13 10 16 19 17 12 16 20 17 13 5 6 2 1
PARETO CHART
28
16
12 12
6
4
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Loose
Threads
Stitching
flaws
Button
problems
Material
flaws
FLOWCHART
O A flowchart diagrams the steps in a process.
O Flowcharts help problem solvers better understand
the process so they can highlight quality problems.

FLOWCHART
CHECK SHEET
O A check sheet is a fact-finding tool used to collect
data about quality problems. A typical check sheet
tallies the number of defects by previously identified
categories. The next step is to graph the defects
per category in a histogram.

CHECK SHEET




Shifts
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CHECK SHEET
COMPONENTS REPLACED BY LAB
TIME PERIOD: 22 Feb to 27 Feb 1998
REPAIR TECHNICIAN: Bob
TV SET MODEL 1013

Integrated Circuits ||||
Capacitors |||| |||| |||| |||| ||||
Resistors ||
Transformers ||||
Commands
CRT |
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAMS
O Show the relationships between a problem and its
possible causes.

CAUSE AND EFFECT SKELETON
Quality
Problem
Materials
Equipment People
Procedures
SCATTER DIAGRAM
O Scatter diagrams and tightness of points plotted on
the graph gives an indication of the strength of the
relationship. A cluster of points resembling a
straight line indicates the strongest correlation
between the variables. In this graph, there is a
strong positive correlation between x and y.

SCATTER DIAGRAM
.
NEW SEVEN Q.C. TOOLS
Affinity Diagrams
Relations Diagrams
Tree Diagrams
Matrix Diagrams
Arrow Diagrams
Process Decision Program Charts
Matrix Data Analysis
AFFINITY DIAGRAMS
OAffinity diagram is a tool that gather large
amount of language data( ideas, opinions,
issues) and organises them into grouping
based on their natural relationships.








CONSTRUCTING AN AFFINITY DIAGRAM
GROUP METHOD APPROACH

OSelect a topic
OCollect verbal data by brainstorming
ODiscuss info collected until everyone
understands it thoroughly
OWrite each item on separate data card
OSpread out all cards on table
OMove data cards into groups of similar
themes

CONT
OCombine statements on data cards to new
Affinity statement
OMake new card with Affinity statement
OContinue to combine until less than 5
groups

RELATIONS DIAGRAMS
OFor Finding Solutions Strategies by
Clarifying Relationships with Complex
Interrelated Causes
- Resolves tangled issues by unraveling the
logical connection
- Allows for Multi-directional thinking rather
than linear
- Also known as Interrelationship diagrams


CONSTRUCTING A RELATIONS DIAGRAM

OExpress the problem in form of Why isnt
something happening?
OEach member lists 5 causes affecting
problem
OWrite each item on a card
ODiscuss info collected until everyone
understands it thoroughly
OMove cards into similar groups

CONT.
O Asking why, explore the cause-effect relationships,
and divide the cards into primary, secondary and
tertiary causes
O Connect all cards by these relationships
O Further discuss until all possible causes have been
identified
O Review whole diagram looking for relationships
among causes
O Connect all related groups


COMPLETING A RELATIONS DIAGRAM

Slide 7 0f 7
Why doesnt
X happen?
Primary Cause
Primary Cause
Primary Cause
Primary Cause
Tertiary
Cause
Secondary
Cause
Secondary
Cause
Secondary
Cause
Secondary
Cause
Tertiary
Cause
4th level
Cause
Tertiary
Cause
Tertiary
Cause
4th level
Cause
5th level
Cause
6th level
Cause
Tertiary
Cause
Secondary
Cause
Source: Nayatani, Y., The Seven New QC Tools (Tokyo, Japan, 3A Corporation, 1984)

TREE DIAGRAMS
For Systematically Pursuing the Best Strategies
for Attaining an Objective
The tree diagram is an analysis tool for
breaking down a broad or top level goal of
a team into many levels of increasingly
detailed and specific actions that need to
be done in order to achieve the stated goal.
Discuss means of achieving objective
(primary means, first level strategy)

TREE DIAGRAMS
Constructing a Tree Diagram
Group Method Approach
Write Relations Diagram topic (Objective
card)
Identify constraints on how objective
can be achieved
Take each primary mean, write ob-
jective for achieving it (secondary means)

CONT
Continue to expand to the fourth level
Review each system of means in both
directions (from objective to means and means to
objective)
Connect all levels
Completing a Tree Diagram
To
Accomplish
3rd means
3rd means
Primary means
3rd means
3rd means
Constraints
Primary means
Secondary means
Secondary means
Secondary means
Secondary means
3rd means
3rd means
3rd means
3rd means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means
4th means

MATRIX DIAGRAM

O The purpose of a matrix diagram is to explore the
existence and the extent of relations between
individual items in two sets of factors or features or
characteristics and express them in a symbolic form
that is easy to understand.
PROCEDURE
O Decide the two sets of factors for which relations
are required to be clarified.
O Call the set of the main factors features
O The set of factors dependent on it counterpart
characteristics.
O Divide the features into primary, secondary and
tertiary features.
O Divide the characteristics into primary, secondary
and tertiary characteristics
O

CONT
O Place the features vertically on the left hand side of
the matrix and characteristics horizontally on top of
the matrix.
O Enter the importance of the features on the column
after that for the tertiary features.
O In the main body of the matrix, place symbols at the
squares denoting the relationship between the
feature and the characteristic meeting at the
intersection.
O The symbols to be used are :

CONT
O Strong relationship
O Medium relationship
O Weak relationship

O In case there is no relation between the concerned
feature and characteristic, leave the square blank to
indicate no relation.


MATRIX DATA ANALYSIS DIAGRAM

O The purpose of matrix data analysis diagram is to
present numerical data about two sets of factors in
a matrix form and analyse it to get numerical
output.
PROCEDURE
O Decide the two factors whose relations are to be
analysed.
O Check the number of individual items in the two
factors.
O Prepare a matrix to accommodate all the items of
the two factors.
O Enter numerical data in the matrix.
O Give the diagram a suitable title.

PROCESS DECISION PROGRAMME CHART

O The Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) is a
very useful and powerful method to overcome a
problem or a goal to be achieved which are not
familiar. With the help of PDPC we can map out all
the conceivable events or contingencies that can
occur in the implementation stage and also find out
feasible counter measures to overcome these
problems.
PROCEDURE

O Prepare a normal flowchart of the process with all
expected events as steps in the chart.
O Consider the possibility of the process not going as
per the plan due to any abnormal, though less
probable, occurrences.
O Show these occurrences on the flowchart through
branching at appropriate locations.

CONT
O Consider how the abnormal occurrence will affect
the process and search for ways and means to
counter the effect.
O Show these countermeasures in rectangles
connecting the corresponding abnormal occurrence
on one side and the process objective or the goal
on the other.
O Give a suitable title to the diagram.



ARROW DIAGRAM
O The diagram provides a clear understanding of the
schedule of various steps in the process which
helps one to monitor the process for ensuring its
completion on time.

PROCEDURE
From strategies on Tree diagram, select
one (Objective of Arrow Diagram)
Identify constraints to Objective
Write all essential activities on
separate cards
List all activities necessary to achieving
Objective
CONT
Organize cards in sequential order of
activities
Remove any duplicate activities
Review order of activities, find
sequence with greatest amount of
activities
Arrange parallel activities
Record names and other necessary
information
Next, complete the diagram
Examine path, number nodes in
sequence from left to right
CONT

TPM DEFINITION
O A company-wide team-based effort to build quality
into equipment and to improve overall equipment
effectiveness
O Total
all employees are involved
it aims to eliminate all accidents, defects and breakdowns
O Productive
actions are performed while production goes on
troubles for production are minimized
O Maintenance
keep in good condition
repair, clean, lubricate

1. TPM DEFINITION (2)
O TPM combines the traditionally American practice
of preventive maintenance with Total Quality
Control and Total Employee Involvement, to create
a culture where operators develop ownership of
their equipment, and become full partners with
Maintenance, Engineering and Management to
assure equipment operates properly everyday.
3. TPM PRINCIPLES
O Increase Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
O Improve existing planned maintenance systems
O The operator is the best condition monitor
O Provide training to upgrade operations and
maintenance skills
O Involve everyone and utilize cross-functional
teamwork


64
WHAT IS SIX SIGMA?

Degree of variation;
Level of performance in terms of
defects;
Statistical measurement of process
capability;
Benchmark for comparison;
Process improvement methodology;
It is a Goal;
Strategy for change;
A commitment to customers to achieve
an acceptable level of performance


Sigma is a letter
in the Greek
Alphabet
65
SIX SIGMA DEFINITIONS
Business Definition
-A break through strategy to significantly
improve customer satisfaction and
shareholder value by reducing variability
in every aspect of business.

66
SIX SIGMA PROJECT METHODOLOGY
Control
Define Measure Analyze Improve

Establish
standards to
maintain
process;
Design the
controls,
implement and
monitor.
Evaluate
financial impact
of the project


Identify, evaluate
and select
projects for
improvement
Set goals
Form teams.



Collect data on
size of the
selected
problem,
identify key
customer
requirements,
Determine key
product and
process
characteristic.

Analyze data,
establish and
confirm the
vital few
determinants of
the
performance.
Validate
hypothesis


Improvement
strategy
Develop ideas
to remove root
causes
Design and
carry out
experiments,
Optimize the
process.
Final solutions




Project Phases
WHAT IS ISO?
O ISO is the acronym for International Organization for
Standardization located in Geneva, Switzerland.
O It is the specialized international agency for
standardization of system and its certification.
O It is an attempt to bring in uniformity in the quality
standard of different countries.
At present , It comprises the national standard bodies of 91
countries.


OBJ ECTIVES OF ISO 9000
O To facilitate international trade of goods and
services.

O To obtain competitiveness by obtaining required
quality in a cost effective way.
ISO 9000 CLAUSES
O Clause 1- Scope
(1.1:General,1.2 :Application)
O Clause 2- Normative Reference

O Clause 3- Terms and definition

O Clause 4- Quality Management System
(4.1: General Requirements, 4.2: Documentation Requirements)
Clause-5 Management Responsibly
(5.1: Management Commitment, 5.2: Customer Focus, 5.3:
Quality Policy,
5.4: Planning objectives & system, 5.5: Responsibility,
Authority and Communication, 5.6: Management Review)

Clause -6 Resource Management
(6.1: Provision for Resources, 6.2: Human Resources, 6.3:
Infrastructure,
6.4: Work environment)


Clause-8 Measurement , Analysis and
Improvement
(8.1: General, 8.2: Monitoring and measurement, 8.3:
Control of Non-conformity, 8.4: Analysis of Data,
8.5: Improvement)
Clause- 7 Product Realizations
(7.1: Planning of Product, 7.2: Customer Related
Process e.g. Determination of requirement, Review
of requirement & Customer Communication 7.3:
Design & Development e.g. Design planning ,
inputs , output. Review, verification, and validation,
7.4: Purchasing, 7.5: Product and service
Provision,7.6: Control of monitoring and measuring
devices ),

ISO 9001:2000
OBJECTIVE
Introduce the concept of new ISO 9001 Standard
Highlight important areas and changes of the new
standard
Briefly introduce the system requirements of the new
standard
WHAT IS ISO 9001: 2000
2nd revision of Quality Management System Requirement Standard
from International Organization for Standards
Replacement for previous ISO 9001 / 9002 and 9003 standards of
1994
Introduced considerable conceptual changes
NEW ISO 9001
QMS
Resource
management
Measurement,
analysis &
improvements
Product
Realization
Management
Responsibility
Continual Improvement cycle
General
requirements
General
requirements
PROS AND CONS
More business oriented. Less procedure oriented
Company wide involvement
Mutual benefit to all interested parties
Customer focus than product focus
Demanding more resources ??
Continual improvements
Less emphasis on documentation
CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING NEW STANDARD
Communication
Management Support
Other employee Support
New ISO
Encouragement
ISO 9001:2000
TRANSITION PROCESS
2 years
Review of
QMS &
Product
realization
Review of
Measuremen
t, analysis &
improvemen
ts
Review of
Management
responsibility
Review of
Resource
management
1st visit 2nd visit 3rd visit 4th visit
NUMERICAL
O ABC company produces 2000 TV sets in a year, for
which it needs an equal number of pictured tube.
Each tube cost RS. 10 and the cost to hold a tube in
stock for a year is rupees 2.40 besides the cost of
placing an order is RS 150 which is not related to its
size.
O Now, if an order of 2000 tubes is placed only one
order per annum is required. When 1000 units are
ordered, two orders in a year are need, while if 500
units are ordered to be supplied, then total of 4 orders
per annum are required.
O Find out the order size that minimizes the cost
function TQ.
O Number of working days in a year are 250
O Lead time 15 days