EPF 0024: Physics II 1

12.0 Atomic Physics

EPF 0024: Physics II 2
Outline
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Nuclear Atom
12.3 Line Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen
12.4 Bohrs Hydrogen Atom Model
12.5 Atomic Radiation
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Objective
To explain nuclear atom model and line spectra.

To analyze Bohr model of hydrogen atom.

To calculate energies and wavelengths of
photons for transitions in atomic hydrogen.

To discuss various types of atomic radiation
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12.1 Introduction
Speculations about the
microscopic structure of
matter has been going on
for centuries. Greek
philosophers theorized
about the smallest possible
piece of an element and
called it an atom.

Theories about nature of
atom include plum pudding
[Fig. 12.1 (a)] and
Rutherfords models [Fig.
12.1 (b)]. The latter model
is now accepted and called
the nuclear atom.
Fig.12.1: (a) Plum pudding model
and (b) Rutherfords solar system
model
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12.2 The Nuclear Atom
An experiment performed
by Rutherford that resulted
in proposing the nuclear
model of the atom is shown
in Fig. 12.2 (a).

According to results of
experiment, Rutherford
proposed that an atom
consists of a small,
positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a number of
electrons (Fig. 12.2 (b)).

Fig. 12.2: Rutherfords
scattering experiment
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When low pressure gas is sealed in a tube and a large
voltage applied between the ends of tube, the gas emits
EM radiation characteristic of the individual gas atoms.
Examples are neon lamps. When this radiation is
allowed to pass through a diffraction grating, it is
separated into the various wavelengths (Fig. 12.3). A
series of bright line is observed.
12.3 Line spectra of atomic hydrogen
Fig. 12.3: The line spectrum of an atom
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This type of spectrum, with
its bright lines in different
colors, is referred to as line
spectrum. Fig. 12.4 (a)
shows the visible part of
the emission line spectrum
of hydrogen atoms.

Interestingly, if light of all
colors is passed through a
tube of hydrogen gas,
some wavelengths will be
absorbed by the atoms,
giving rise to absorption
spectrum at same location
(Fig. 12.4 (b).
Fig. 12.4: Line spectrum of
hydrogen: (a) emission spectrum
(b) absorption spectrum
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Fig. 12.5 illustrates some of the groups or series of lines
in the spectrum of the simplest atom, atomic hydrogen.

The group of lines in the visible region is known as the
Balmer series after Johann J. Balmer (1825-1898) who
deduced an empirical equation that gave the values for
the observed wavelengths.

Fig. 12.5: Line spectrum of atomic hydrogen
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The empirical equations for determining the
wavelengths for the series are:






where the constant R = 1.097 10
7
m
1
is
called the Rydberg constant and n is called
the principle quantum number.
... , 6 , 5 , 4
1
3
1 1
series Paschen
... , 5 , 4 , 3
1
2
1 1
series Balmer
... , 4 , 3 , 2
1
1
1 1
series Lyman
2 2
2 2
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
R
n
n
R
n
n
R

(12.1)
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Example

Find (a) the longest and (b) the shortest
wavelengths of the Balmer series.
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Solution
( )
nm 656
m 10 524 . 1
3
1
2
1
m 10 097 . 1
1
2
1 1
1 6
2 2
1 7
2 2
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

n
R
( )
nm 365
m 10 743 . 2 0
2
1
m 10 097 . 1
1
2
1 1
1 6
2
1 7
2 2
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

n
R
(a)
(b)
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In 1913 Bohr presented a model for
the hydrogen atom that led to
equations such as Balmers.
He combines Rutherfords nuclear
atom with Planks theory of
quantization of energy and
hypothesized that:
(i) in H-atom electrons can only
occupy certain discrete energy
levels (Fig. 12.6).
(ii) while in these stationary orbits,
electrons do not radiate energy.
(iii)The angular momentum L of the
electron can assume only certain
discrete values
12.4 Bohrs Hydrogen Atom Model
Fig.12.6: The Bohr
Model of the Atom
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When an electron in an initial
orbit with a larger energy E
i
changes to a final orbit with a
smaller energy E
f
, the emitted
photon has an energy


Fig. 12.7 shows an electron of
mass m and speed v in an orbit
of radius r. Total energy of
electron consists of kinetic
energy and electrostatic
potential energy. Nucleus
assumed to contain Z protons
(Atomic Number).
hf E E
f i
= (12.2)
Fig. 12.7: An electron in a
uniform circular motion
(Bohr model)
+Ze
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The total energy E of the orbiting electron is:



The centripetal force is provided by the
electrostatic force, that is


r
kZe
mv U K E
2
2
2
1
= + =
(12.3)
2
2 2
r
kZe
r
mv
=
(12.4)
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Using Equations (12.3) and (12.4) we obtain an
expression for the total energy, that is


To determine r, Bohr made a third hypothesis that:
(iii) The angular momentum L of the electron can
assume only certain discrete values (similar to
Planck's assumption about energy), that is
r
kZe
r
kZe
r
kZe
E
2 2
1
2 2 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(12.5)
( )
t
e
2
2
h
n r mv
r
v
mr I L
n n n
= =
|
.
|

\
|
= = (12.6)
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Using Equations (12.4) and (12.6) we obtain an
expression for r
n
, the n
th
Bohr orbit, that is





For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), the smallest Bohr
orbit (n = 1) has a radius r
1
= 5.29 10
11
m
and is called the Bohr radius.
( ) ... , 3 , 2 , 1 m 10 5.29

4
2
11
2
2 2
2
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

n
Z
n
Z
n
mke
h
r
n
t
(12.7)
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From Equations (12.5) and (12.7) the
corresponding expression for the total energy
for the n
th
orbit is obtained, that is:





Fig. 12.8 shows a representation of energy
level diagram for H-atom (Z = 1) using
equation (12.8).
( ) ( ) ... , 3 , 2 , 1
Z
eV 6 . 13
Z
J 10 18 . 2

2
2
2
2
2
18
2
2
2
4 2 2
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

n
n n
n
Z
h
e mk
E
n
t
(12.8)
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Fig. 12.8: Energy level diagram for H-atom
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The lowest energy level at n = 1 has a value
13.6 eV and is called the ground state of the
atom. The energy levels at n = 2 and above
are called the excited states.

The energy needed to remove an electron
from the ground state (n = 1) to infinity (n = )
for hydrogen atom is equal to the binding
energy of the electron at ground state but
positive (+13.6 eV). This energy is called the
ionization energy of the atom. Supplying this
amount of energy removes the electron from
the atom, producing positive hydrogen ion H
+
.
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Bohr then combined his model of the atom
(equation 12.8) with Einsteins idea of the
photon through the equation E
i
E
f
= hf and
obtained the expression





From which the wavelengths in the line
spectrum of hydrogen can be predicted.
( )
f i f i
i f
f i
f i
n n n n
n n
Z
c h
e mk
n
Z
n
Z
h
e mk
E E
hc
hf
> =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
... , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
1 1 2 1

2
2 2
2
3
4 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
4 2 2
t

(12.9)
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The value for the expression 2t
2
mk
2
e
4
/(h
3
c) is
1.097 10
7
m
1
, which agrees very well with
the experimental value for R, the Rydberg
constant, obtained earlier.

Fig. 12.9 shows the Lyman and Balmer series
for the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) calculated from
Equation (12.9). Bohrs model shows that
Lyman series occurs when electrons make
transitions from higher energy levels with
n
i
= 2, 3, 4, to the ground state (n
f
= 1).
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Fig. 12.9: Lyman and Balmer series in H-atom
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Just as an electron emits a
photon when it jumps to a
lower level, it can also
absorb a photon and jump to
a higher level.

This process occurs only if
the photon has the proper
energy. In particular, the
photon must have an energy
that precisely matches the
energy difference between
the lower and higher level to
which the electron is raised.
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Example 1
An electron in a hydrogen atom is in the initial
state n
i
= 4. Calculate the wavelength of the
photon emitted by this electron if it jumps to
the final state (a) n
f
= 3, (b) n
f
= 2, or
(c) n
f
= 1. (take the Rydberg constant
R = 1.097 10
7
m
1
.)
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Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
nm 1875
16
1
9
1
m 10 1.097
1

1 1 1
1
1 7
1
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

i f
n n R

nm 2 . 486
16
1
4
1
m 10 1.097
1

1 1 1
1
1 7
1
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

i f
n n R

nm 23 . 97
16
1
1
1
m 10 1.097
1

1 1 1
1
1 7
1
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

i f
n n R

1 1 1
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i f
n n
R

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Example 2
A hydrogen atom with its electron in the initial
state n
i
= 5 emits a photon with a wavelength
of 434 nm. To which state did the electron
jump?
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Solution
( )( )( )
( ) ( )( )
2
m 10 097 . 1 m 10 434 5
5 m 10 097 . 1 m 10 434

1 1 1
1 7 9
2
2
1 7 9
2
2
2 2
=


=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=


R n
Rn
n
n n
R
i
i
f
i f

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12.6 Atomic Radiation
There are various types of radiation
associated with multielectron atom. Examples
range from X-rays that are energetic enough
to pass through a human body, to the soft
white light of a fluorescent light bulb.

Laser is also radiation whose origin is the
controlled energy transitions in an atom as
we shall see here.
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12.6.1 X-Rays
X-rays are produced when
electrons, accelerated
through a large potential
difference, collide with a
metal target made from
molybdenum or platinum.

The target is contained
within an evacuated glass
tube (Fig. 12.11(a)). A plot
of X-ray intensity per unit
wavelength versus the
wavelength is shown in Fig.
12.11 (b) and consists of
sharp peaks or lines
superimposed on a broad
continuous spectrum.
Fig. 12.11: (a) X-ray tube and (b) the
X-ray spectrum for molybdenum
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The broad continuous spectrum is referred to as
Bremsstrahlung (breaking radiation) and is
emitted when the electrons decelerate upon
hitting the target.

The sharp peaks are called characteristic X-rays.
They are characteristic of the target material.
They are marked K
o
and K
|
as n = 1 or K shell is
involved. When energetic electron strikes the
target a K-shell electrons may be knocked off. An
electron in one of the outer shells fall into the K
shell emitting X-ray photon in the process.
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12.6.2 Lasers
The laser is an invention of the
twentieth century. The operating
principle of many types of lasers
depend directly on the quantum
mechanical structure of the atom.

It has already been shown that a
photon is emitted when an electron
makes a transition from a higher
energy state to a lower one. This is
called spontaneous emission.
Normally, in spontaneous emission,
an electron in an atom eventually
drops to a lower level in a time that
is about 10
8
s giving off a photon in
the process.
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The operation of a laser
depends on stimulated
emission where an incoming
photon induces or stimulates
an electron to change energy
levels.

In stimulated emission one
photon goes in and two
photons come out (Fig. 12.12).
This process amplifies the
number of photons and
therefore is the origin of the
word laser = light amplification
by the stimulated emission of
radiation. The emitted photon
travels in the same direction
as the incoming photon and
are coherent.
Fig. 12.12: Stimulated emission
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Stimulated emission depends
on an external source of
energy to excite electrons to
higher energy levels and
produce what is known as a
population inversion of
electrons.

Fig. 12.13 compares a
normal energy level
population with a population
inversion. The energy state in
a population inversion must
be metastable, in the sense
that electrons remain in it for
a much longer period of time
than they do in an ordinary
excited state.
Fig. 12.13: Population inversion
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A specific example of a
laser is the helium-neon
laser in which the neon
atoms produce the laser
light. In this arrangement
the helium and neon gas is
enclosed in an evacuated
tube and a high voltage
applied. Fig. 12.14 shows
the schematic diagram.

Fig. 12.14: Schematic of
a helium-neon laser
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Fig. 12.15: Energy level diagram.
The appropriate energy level diagram for
helium and neon are shown in Fig. 12.15. The
excited state E
3
is metastable. Electrons are
excited to this level by application of a high
potential of 8000 V to the tube containing the
helium-neon mixture.
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12.6.3 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
An atom in an excited state
can emit photons of various
energies as it falls to the
ground state. The emission
of light of lower frequency
after illumination by a higher
frequency as shown in Fig.
12.16 is referred to as
fluorescence.

An example of fluorescence
is the fluorescent light bulb.
The inside of such a bulb,
with a filament at one end,
is filled with mercury vapor.
Fig. 12.16: The mechanism
of fluorescence
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When a voltage is applied to the ends of the
bulb, the filament is heated and produces
electrons which are accelerated through the
tube and collide with the mercury atoms to
produce ultraviolet light.

The inside of the tube is coated with
phosphor that absorbs the ultraviolet light and
then emits a visible lower-frequency light.
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Another application of fluorescence is in
forensics. The analysis of a crime scene is
enhanced by the fact that human bones and
teeth are fluorescent. Therefore, illuminating a
crime scene with ultraviolet light can make items
of interest stand out for easy identification.

Alternatively, the use of a fluorescent dye can
make fingerprints visible thus enabling
identification of a culprit at a crime scene.
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Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence, but
in phosphorescent materials continue to give off
secondary glow long after the initial illumination
that excited the atoms. Phosphorescence may
persist for periods of time ranging from a few
seconds to several hours.

An example Phosphorescent materials are
those used in watches and clocks so that the
writing on the deice continue to be seen in the
dark even though the light is switched off.