Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Welding
Principles and Practices
4th edition
Edward R. Bohnart
Objectives
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
1. Describe five basic joints and the welds applied to each. 2. Measure fillet and groove weld sizes. 3. Determine position of welding for groove and fillet welds on plate and pipe. 4. List factors that will affect strength of a welded joint. 5. Describe difference between a weld discontinuity and a weld defect. 6. Describe visual inspection and its limitations and advantages.
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Corner joint
Edge joint
Lap joint
T-joint
In Chapter 28, the most common joints will be described in terms of their use, advantages and disadvantages, joint preparation, and economy.
Fillet weld
Groove weld
Bead Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Also called surface welds Single-pass deposits of weld metal Used to build up pad of metal and to replace metal on worn surfaces
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fillet Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Consist of one or more beads deposited in right angle formed by two plates Take right triangular cross section due to location placed in weld joint Used for lap joints, T-joints, and open corner joints Weld symbol takes same right triangle shape as weld
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fillet Weld
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-24, Fig. 4.22, 2000.
Groove Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Consist of one or more beads deposited in groove Used for butt joints
Unprepared with square edges Prepared with bevel or J-groove
If both members prepared same, take shape of V or U and named V-groove or U-groove butt joint
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Groove Welds
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
10
Plug Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Similar to slot welds Used for filling slotted or circular holes in lap joints
Fillet weld may be made around faying surface of joint if hole large
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
11
Examples
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., pp. 4-20 and 4-21, Figs. 4.16d and 4.17a,b, 2000.
12
13
Groove Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Generally referred to as partial joint penetration (PJP) welds or complete joint penetration (CJP)
No size reference, then considered to be CJP PJP weld designated on welding symbol
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14
Note that the reinforcement on the face and/or root does not count as part of weld size.
Complete joint penetration groove welds used where the maximum load-carrying capacity is required for the joint.
15
The weld interface is the line between the weld and the HAZ.
16
Seal Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Continuous welds running entire length of riveted joints seal Usually single-pass welds deposited along root of joint Not expected to carry heavy load Intended primarily to provide leak tightness
American Welding Society
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Groove Weld
17
18
Groove Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Proper reinforcement should not exceed 1/8 in. Width of groove weld should not be more than 1/4 inch greater than width of groove face
Allows for maximum amount of fusion beyond groove face of 1/8 in on each side of joint
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
19
Excessive reinforcement above allowable limit waste of time and weld material and also decreases working strength of joint because of concentration of stresses at toe of the weld.
20
Groove Weld
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Metal deposited beyond groove face waste of time and filler metal
Adds to overall heat input Increases resultant residual stresses Adds cost to joint Decreases strength
21
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-25, Fig. 4.24, 2000.
It would only be considered incomplete joint penetration if CJP groove was called for.
22
Fillet Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Most common weld used in industry As strong or stronger than base metal if weld correct size and proper welding techniques used Contour is shape of face of weld
Flat Convex Concave
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
23
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-26, Fig. 4.27, 2000.
24
Excessive Convexity
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Should be avoided Increases cost Wastes filler metal Concentrates more stresses at toes of weld Based on width of weld face
Only slight amount of convexity if specified to be convex
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
25
maximum convexity(in)
less than or equal to 5/16 greater than 5/16 greater than or equal to 1
Table 4-1 from Text
26
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-26, Fig. 4.27, 2000.
27
Leg is dimension from weld toe to start of joint root Size is measured as largest right triangle inscribed within weld profile
Special fillet weld gauge used to measure Stress concentrations improved over other types
Better endurance limit under fatigue loading
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
28
29
All three types widely used Design engineer specifies on the weld symbol Determined by:
Position of welding Process Type of consumables (gas, electrode) Type of joint Job requirements
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
30
Extends from point where the two base metal members join to the face of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed in the weld Convexity on convex fillet weld and concavity on concave fillet weld need not be considered Penetration not figured into this throat size
31
Measured from depth of joint root penetration No credit given for convexity On convex and concave fillet welds, measured to face of largest right triangle that can be drawn in weld
32
Same as effective throat on concave fillet weld Can be used to indicate size and strength
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Correct Weld
33
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Over Welded
34
35
Under Welded
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
36
Rule: Size of the fillet weld leg should equal the thickness of metal being welded.
37
Wasted weld metal, time, and extra heat input. Weakest point will be at the toes of weld on the 1/4 inch plate.
38
Less time, less weld metal, less heat input = better weld Just as strong as two prior examples
39
Weld Length
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Fillet and groove welds usually made along full length of joint
Sometimes full strength can be achieved by welding a portion of joint
Effective length of fillet weld measured as overall length of full-size fillet weld
Start and stop of weld must be allowed for
Not square, so allowance made when measuring
Space between welds determined by centerto-center distance of weld which is called pitch
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
40
Easily calculated Important to determine how much stress joint can take area = weld length weld size load stress weld area
Safety margins are built in to ensure the weld is able to withstand the load.
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
41
Continuous Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Extend across entire length of joint from one end to the other For structures to develop maximum strength and tightness, need to weld all seams completely
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
42
Intermittent Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Series of short welds spaced at intervals Cannot be used where maximum strength required or work must be watertight or airtight Cost reduced Frequency, length, and size depend upon thickness of plates, type of joint, method of welding, and job service requirements Usually employed in lap and T-joints
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intermittent Weld
Weld
Space
43
Weld
44
Tack Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Short welds spaced at intervals to join parts to whole in process of assembly before welding Must be strong
Hold part in position Able to resist stress when expansion and contraction occur during welding
Number and size of tack welds depend upon thickness of plate, length of seam, and amount of cold working to be done
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
45
Tack Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Use more heat for tack welding than for major welding Must have good fusion and good root penetration Flat and smooth
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
46
Stringer Bead
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Weld made by moving weld pool along intended path in straight line Fast cooling rates because of faster travel speed
Can impact grain structure and affect distortion level
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-27, Fig. 4.32, 2000.
47
Weave Bead
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Weld made by moving weld pool along intended path but with side-to-side oscillation
Generally done to increase weld size
Codes will limit width Reduced travel speed increases heat input and slows cooling rate
Impact grain structure and affect distortion level
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
48
Weave Bead
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Controlling maximum weave width will help eliminate slag inclusions and incomplete fusion type discontinuities
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p. 4-27, Fig. 4.32, 2000.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
49
Weld Positions
Four basic positions:
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
50
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
51
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
52
Weld axis at point of welding vertical Weld face lies in approximately vertical plane
Travel up, torch pointed up, at angle ahead of weld Travel down, torch pointed up, at angle to weld pool
Groove Weld Bead Weld Flat Plate Butt Joint Corner Joint Fillet Weld Tee Joint Lap Joint
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
53
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
54
55
1G - Flat position
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4G - Overhead position
3G Vertical position
56
2G Horizontal
Pipe axis vertical
5G Multiple-position
Overhead, vertical, and flat Pipe axis horizontal and pipe not rotated
1G Flat position
Pipe axis horizontal and pipe rotated
American Welding Society
57
58
2F Horizontal
Pipe axis vertical
4F Overhead
Pipe axis vertical
5F Multiple positions
Pipe axis horizontal, pipe fixed
59
60
Horizontal reference plane always taken to lie below weld under consideration.
American Welding Society Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
61
Horizontal reference plane always taken to lie below weld under consideration. Angle of rotation of the weld face is determined by a line perpendicular to weld face at its center which passes through the weld axis.
American Welding Society Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Positions for circumferential groove welds indicated by shaded areas for pipe with axis varying from horizontal (0) to vertical (90).
American Welding Society Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
63
Strength of Welds
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Welded joints as strong (or stronger) than base metal being welded Good welding design specifies welds that require minimum amount of weld metal
Weld metal costs more than base metal and labor costs for application
64
Strength of weld metal Type of joint preparation Type of weld Location of joint in relation to parts joined Load conditions to which weld subjected Welding process and procedure Heat treatment Skill of welder
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
65
66
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
67
Stress Reduction
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Resistance to turning effect of one member at joint best obtained by welds that are well separated Example of proper placement
of welds to resist turning effect of one member of the joint. Single weld at A not as effective as welds at both A and B.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
68
Stress Concentration
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
A lap weld having poor distribution of stress through the weld. Excessive convexity A lap weld having a more even distribution of stress. A lap weld in which there is a uniform transfer of stress through the weld.
69
Stress greater at ends of weld than in middle for many load conditions
Advisable to box the bead around joint
Far greater resistance to tearing action on weld Length of boxing should be minimum of twice size of weld specified Example of weld boxing around the corners to obtain resistance to tearing action on welds when subjected to eccentric loads.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
70
Desirable
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Acceptable
Desirable
71
Reduction of effective throat materially reduces size of weld Concentrates stress at center Weaken weld and invite joint failure Defect caused by too fast travel and excessive welding current
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
72
Poor fusion at root of weld and poor fusion of weld metal to plate surfaces Stress concentrates at toe of weld Usually caused by low welding current and slow rate of travel
73
At problem area A, there is incomplete fusion in the fillet welds. At problem area B, the weld has bridged the joint root and is an incomplete fusion.
74
Decreases thickness of plate at that point leads to plate weakness Invites joint failure
Designed load of joint based on original plate thickness
Defect caused by improper arc manipulation, fast travel, and excessive welding current
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
75
Sign of poor fusion (poor bond) between weld metal and base metal Load applied to welded joint, weld will peel from surface (weld failure) Failure certain when overlap located at toe of weld Caused by low welding current, fast travel, or improper electrode manipulation
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
76
Reduction in leg length is reduction in size of fillet weld Results in weld that does not possess physical properties needed for safe operation Usually caused by improper electrode angle and faulty electrode manipulation
May be accompanied by too fast travel
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
77
Defect usually found at root of weld and plate surfaces Stress concentrated at toe of weld Poor penetration and fusion caused by:
Welding with current too low Improper speed of travel Improper electrode manipulation
Deposited weld metal may become porous due to slag and gas entrapment
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
78
Aligned porosity
Cluster porosity Undercut
Incomplete fusion
Slag inclusion
Overlap
American Welding Society
79
Longitudinal crack
Delamination
Lamination
American Welding Society
80
Transverse crack
Throat crack
Crater crack
Toe crack
Root crack
American Welding Society
81
Porosity
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Cavity-type discontinuities (pores) formed by gas entrapment during solidification Discontinuities are spherical and may be elongated Usually caused by contamination of filler metal or base metal or improper gas shielding Not considered as severe concern as cracks or incomplete fusion
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
82
Sum of diameters Type of weld of individual Length and location Diameter porosity pores of weld Groove-transverse No visible piping N/A N/A to tensile loading porosity allowed Groove-fillet > 1/32 3/8 3/8 1 Groove-fillet 3/8 3/4 12 Fillet-CJP groove 3/32 single pore 4 piping porosity Table 4-2 from Text *Note: inch measurements
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
83
Acceptable groove weld profile Recommended reinforcement (R) does not extend more than 1/8 inch above surface of plate
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
84
Decrease in size, reduces size of butt weld Thickness of weld less than thickness of plate
Weld will not be as strong as plate
Failure under maximum load certain Caused by combination of high welding current and too fast travel
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
85
Caused by travel that is too slow or low welding current Possibility of porosity and slag inclusion in weld
Poor appearance
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
86
Results in reduction of actual plate thickness Reduction in plate surface, and concentration of stress at toe due to sharp corner may cause failure of welded joint Discontinuity to be avoided
Does not need to be repaired unless exceeds acceptance criteria
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Caused by high welding current, too fast travel, or improper electrode manipulation
87
Incomplete fusion at toe of weld Usually caused by low welding current, slow rate of travel, or improper electrode manipulation Usually contains some porosity and poor fusion
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
88
89
Incomplete fusion
Cluster porosity
Aligned porosity
Slag inclusion
90
Delamination
Underfill
Overlap
American Welding Society
91
Transverse crack
Longitudinal crack
Crater crack
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
92
Fracture-type discontinuity with sharp tip and length greater than its width or opening Not allowed considered defects and must be repaired Considered stress riser because of sharp tip Propagate rapidly across joint or weldment
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
93
Cracks
Hot cracks
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Hot cracks caused by insufficient ductility at high temperatures Move between grains in weld metal or at weld interface
Cold cracks
Occur once weld metal has solidified Weld metal, heat-affected zone, or base metal affected Occur because of improper welding procedure or techniques or welding service condition
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
94
Example of a Crack
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Note the crack in the crater area of the weld. Crater was not properly filled to full cross section of weld. Small crack formed in crater due to shrinkage forces, and crack propagated out of crater all the way around the joint.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th ed., p 9-6, Fig. 9.7, 2000.
95
Hydrogen Cracking
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
96
Hydrogen Cracking
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
97
Hydrogen Cracking
Problem for hard grain structure type steel
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Also greater tendency for cracking if joint highly restrained Best method to eliminate delayed cracking or hydrogen cracking is to eliminate all levels of hydrogen to acceptable levels
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
98
Hydrogen Cracking
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Good practice to use proper welding procedures to control cooling rate Use of preheat and interpass temperature and postweld heat treatment may be required Usually found in heat-affected zone (HAZ)
Cracks may not open to surface so called underbead cracks
Difficult to locate Final inspection delayed to allow crack to come to surface
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
99
Incomplete Fusion
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Weld discontinuity that occurs when weld metal is in contact with other weld metal, joint groove, or rootface, but does not fuse with it
Examples of incomplete fusion at various locations
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
100
Incomplete Fusion
Most codes and specifications do not allow
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
101
Occurs when weld metal does not extend all the way into root of joint and when weld metal penetrates root but does not fuse Generally due to not applying sufficient heat and arc force to penetrate root of joint
Sometimes by not dissolving surface oxides or impurities
Considered defect
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Examples
102
At root of joint, may be subject to tension or bending forces, weld size not large enough and failure occurs Shrinkage forces of weld cooling may lead to cracks
May propagate from root out into base metal or out through subsequent weld passes
Penetration is measured by how far weld penetrates into joint (not the base metal)
Line indicating depth of effective throat also indication of amount of root penetration
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
103
Inclusions
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Can be located in between weld passes, and/or between weld pass and joint groove or root face Slag caught between passes If open to surface it should be repaired
No fusion at that point
104
Inclusions
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Controlled by
following welding procedure, proper weld bead location and proper welding techniques
Cleaning between passes will reduce creation of inclusions
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
105
Underfill
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Exists when weld face or root surface extends below surface of material being welded Results from poor welder observation and technique Some usually allowable depending upon code Usually provide better fatigue properties than overwelding
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
106
Avoid all defects little tolerance permitted in critical or code work Criticality of discontinuity one way of assessing importance of classifying it as defect
Actual repair of discontinuity may create more problems Engineer take all issues into consideration when determining if meets acceptance criteria
2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
107
Visual Inspection
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
108
Weld Quality
Built in by professional welders
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
109
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Technology, 4th Ed., p. 10-12, Fig. 10.14, 2000
Measuring fillet weld size. On the left, a concave fillet weld; On the right, a convex fillet weld.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
110
Using scanner at joint preparation or finished weld provides multitude of measurements Data supplied via visual displays, computer saved data, and strip chart printouts
Servo-Robot Corp.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
111
Visual Inspection
WELDING: Principles and Practices, 4e
Effective tool in controlling overall weld quality VI limited to visible surface of weld
External surfaces of weldments see highest stresses in service