Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Graham T. Smith., Industrial Metrology, Surface and Roundness. D. J. Whitehouse., Handbook of Surface Metrology. Bala Muralikrishnan, Jay Raja., Computational Surface and Roundness Metrology.
Introduction
What is Metrology? Quality in Manufacturing. Why Precision Length Measurements? Need for reliable Standards. Standard of Length. Shop floor standards. Traceability.
What is Metrology ?
Metro - logy
Quality in Manufacturing
Changing Concepts on quality and their significance
Quality covers all activities from the concept to the final disposal of the product.
Inspection
Passive Active Dynamic Inspect - Accept - Reject Inspect - Infer - Act Inspect Act
Passive Inspection Sampling Active inspection SQC Dynamic Inspection In-process measurement
Metrology- Applications
Measurement Accuracies
Measurement accuracies should be better than the accuracy expected in the measured entity. As a thumb rule, the measurement accuracy should be an order better than the measured value.
Measurement Accuracies
Average ------Mean Variation ----- Standard deviation
x
i 1
(x x)
i 1 i
n 1
Measurement Accuracies
Take an example of a dimension:10mm + 5 mm
(tolerance 10 mm)
For checking this we need an accuracy of 1 mm. That instrument is to be calibrated to 0. 1 mm That in turn has to be calibrated to 0.01mm That in turn has to be calibrated to 0.001mm And so on . ..Where to stop?
Tolerance Trend
Length Standards
Basic Standards of Length Meter ; Yard Auxiliary Standards Shop floor reference Slip Gauges and accessories
Meter Standard
1889 Physical
Meter Standard
1960 Wavelength
Wavelength of Krypton- 86 was accepted to define the meter.
1 650 763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the radiation of krypton-86 is one Meter (m)
Meter Standard
1983 In terms of time. New definition of Meter in Seconds! Meter is the length travelled by light in 1 / 299 792 458 s.
Laser Standard
It was also in 1960 that the first laser was constructed and by the mid 1970s lasers were being used as length standards. This is now realized by iodine-stabilized helium-neon lasers.
Slip Gauges
Available in different series, in a box. a) Millimeter series: 1,2,3, 5,10,15,20,25 etc; max:100 mm b) Tenth (of a mm) series: 1.1,1.2, 1.3 - - - 1.9 mm c) Hundredth (of a mm) series: 1.01, 1.02- - - 1.09 mm d) Micrometer series: 1.001, 1.002,1.003 - - - 1.009 mm With these series any dimension could be built up. Example : Say 34.732 mm . For this first set the micrometer value 1.002 Then set the hundredth value 1.03 Then set the tenth value 1.7 Balance needed is 31.000 mm This is set from mm series (30+1)=31.00 Total 34.732
Airy Points
Definition: The best points for supporting a bar horizontally so that the end slopes become zero. If the bar is of length L and there are n supports, the supports should be separated by distance L/sqrt(n2-1). For two support this is 0.5773 L .
Support points
Line and End standards need the end portion of the standard to be horizontal and the ends to be parallel. This is possible when the slope at the ends is zero. Airy points of support allows this. For straight edges used for checking the straightness, the support points should be such that the total deflection is minimum.
Traceability
For international trade there is the need to adhere to the standard scrupulously especially with diminishing tolerances. This means that all linear measurements done are to be traceable to the standard of length the meter.
Traceability
It is practically impossible to directly refer to the meter for all measurements. So it is done by reference to secondary or auxiliary standards which are calibrated with reference to the standard meter. Like wise all other measuring instruments are to be calibrated with secondary standards, ensuring traceability to the meter. ISO 9000 recommends this.
For making the master optical flat of high quality, three of them are made together. Then they are checked for their flatness, in pairs, using light interference. i.e, A with B, A with C and B with C. If in all the three cases the fringes seen are 0 or near that then all the three surfaces are perfectly flat. The same method is applied for an engineers square. Here interference approach is notused; only the gap between the vertical portions are checked and minimized.
Light Interference
It is evident from the figure that the shape or pattern of interference fringes can be obtained in a set up using an optical flat as shown above by taking imaginary sections parallel to the optical flat at /2 intervals. If the surface is perfectly flat then these fringes will be straight and equally spaced as shown.
Here one can note that the fringe pattern on a spherical surface will be circular with decreased spacings, at the periphery. This is due the change in the slope. On the right, two slip gauges of the same size are shown in an interference setup. The one on the left is a 00 grade and the other, a used grade 1 slip. Identify the surface defects on it by looking at the pattern of the fringes.
Laser Interferometer
Interference can be used for distance measurements i.e, movements.Laser is the preferred source of monochromatic light and due to its coherrance one can obtain interference for long distances. The laser beam is split into two parts by the beam splitter and after reflection from the two cube corner mirrors they are combined to observe the interference. One of the mirror is fixed. Hence the fringes will move as the other mirror is moved. This allows the distance to be measured.
Laser Interferometer
The Laser, sensors, and one mirror are all enclosed in one unit. The fringe counting sensor is connected to the electronic unit that subdivides the fringes further and displays the distance based on the wave length of the laser, either in mm or in inch units. The other mirror is placed on the table which is moved. This movement causes the fringes to move and the interferometer counts this movement as well as its direction (+ or - ) and displays it. Laser interferometer is used for calibrating table movements in CNC Machines, Coordinate measuring machines and other precision units for precision measurement of their movements.
Observation of the fraction by which the slip gauge height exceeds a full multiple of /2
Fringes are geometrically obtained by taking imaginary section at /2 intervals parallel to the optical flat surface as shown. Blue lines show the fringes on the base. Red lines show the fringes on a slip gauge of size /2 size ( Not possible practically) Green lines show the fringes on a slip gauge which is 1.6 /2 height. Observe the fringe offset between the fringes on the base and the slip gauge surface. Between the Blue and Red fringes there is no off-set as the height is /2. This will be true for any multiples of /2 . However between the blue and the green there is an off-set. Measure them in mm and find a the fraction. Here this fraction is 0.6 . That is the amount by which the height exceeds /2 .
N-n
1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
F-f
(F1-f)
A-G
X1 X2 X3
X1 X2 X3 X1 X2 X3
2/2
(F2-f)
3/2
(F3-f)
A-G has to be the same for all three wave lengths. Search for the same value in the table under A-G. If there is no convergence, repeat with (N-n) as -1, -2 etc till the same error appears for all the three wave lengths.
Refreshing on Tolerancing
The following slides explains the concept of tolerance and fits. The IT numbers that are indicators for the precision achieved is connected with the process of manufacturing as given in the following slide.
Tolerancing
Fundamental Deviations
Specifying Fits
Quality of fits
Types of Fits
Standard Fits
Loose Running H11/ c11 Free Running H9/ d9 Loose Running H11/ c11 Easy Running - Good quality easy to doH8/ f8 Sliding H7/ g6 Close Clearance - Spigots and locations H8 f7 Location/Clearance H7/ h6 Location- slight interference H7/ k6 Location/Transition H7/ n6 Location/Interference- Press fit which can be separated H7/ p6 Medium Drive H7/s6 Force H7/u6
Limit Gauging
When a dimension is given a tolerance, the actual dimension has to be within the tolerance specified. Hence we need not find out the exact dimension. It is sufficient to check whether the dimension lies within the tolerance limit. This can be done faster than by measurement. This process is called Limit Gauging
Limit Gauging
Limit Gauging
Limit Gauging
Tolerance is not on the dimension. It is on the form. A Go gauge checks the form of the part. Hence it is the a unique inspection. However there are many limitations for gauging.
Gauges
Plug Gauge
Gauges
Gauges
Ring Gauge
Abbe Principle
The scale of a linear measuring system should be co-linear with the spatial dimension or displacement to be measured or else the measurement must be corrected for the associated Abb error.
Abbe Error