Working With Oracle

David M.
Kroenkes
Database Processing:
Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation
Chapter Ten: Managing Databases with Oracle

DAVID M. KROENKES DATABASE PROCESSING, 10th Edition 2006 Pearson Prentice Hall 10-1
Introduction
Oracle is the worlds most popular DBMS - It is a powerful and robust DBMS that runs on many different operating systems Oracle DBMS engine available is several versions:
The Personal Edition of Oracle is available with this tex and can also be downloaded from Oracle
Example of Oracle products:

SQL*Plus: a utility for processing SQL and creating components like stored procedures and triggers:
PL/SQL is a programming language that adds programming constructs to the SQL language
Oracle Developer (Forms & Reports Builder)
Also third-party products - Quest Softwares TOAD

View Ridge Gallery

View Ridge Gallery is a small art gallery that has been in business for 30 years It sells contemporary European and North American fine art View Ridge has one owner, three salespeople, and two workers View Ridge owns all of the art that it sells; it holds no items on a consignment basis
DAVID M. KROENKES DATABASE PROCESSING, 10th Edition 2006 Pearson Prentice Hall
10-3
Application Requirements
View Ridge application requirements:
Track customers and their artist interests Record gallery's purchases Record customers' art purchases List the artists and works that have appeared in the gallery Report how fast an artist's works have sold and at what margin Show current inventory in a Web page
View Ridge Gallery Database Design
10-5
SQL*Plus
Oracle SQL*Plus or the Oracle Enterprise Manager Console may be used to manage an Oracle database SQL*Plus is a text editor available in all Oracle Except inside quotation marks of strings, Oracle commands are case-insensitive The semicolon (;) terminates a SQL statement The right-leaning slash (/) executes SQL statement stored in Oracle buffer SQL*Plus can be used to:
Enter SQL statements Submit SQL files created by text editors, e.g., notepad, to Oracle
10-6
SQL*Plus Buffer
SQL*Plus keeps the current statements in a multi-line buffer without executing it LIST is used to see the contents of the buffer:
LIST {line_number} is used to change the current line
CHANGE/astring/bstring/ is used to change the contents of the current line:

astring = the string you want to change bstring = what you want to change it to
Example: change/Table_Name/*/
Table_Name is replaced with *
10-7
SQL*Plus LIST Command
10-8
SQL*Plus: Changing a Line in the Buffer
10-9
Creating Tables
Some of the SQL-92 CREATE TABLE statements we have studied need to be modified for Oracle
Oracle does not support a CASCADE UPDATE constraint Money or currency is defined in Oracle using the NUMBER data type
Oracle sequences must be used for surrogate keys The DESCRIBE or DESC command is used to view table status
10-10
Oracle Data Types
10-11
Oracle CREATE TABLE Statements for the View Ridge Schema
10-12
Oracle CREATE TABLE Statements for the View Ridge Schema
10-13
Oracle Sequences
A sequence is an object that generates a sequential series of unique numbers:
Create Sequence CustID Increment by 1 start with 1000;
It is the best way to work with surrogate keys in Oracle Two sequence methods:
NextVal provides the next value in a sequence. CurrVal provides the current value in a sequence.
Using sequences does not guarantee valid surrogate key values because it is possible to have missing, duplicate, or wrong sequence value in the table
10-14
Using Sequences
Creating a sequence:
CREATE SEQUENCE CustID INCREMENT BY 1 START WITH 1000;
Entering data using a sequence:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER (CustomerID, Name, AreaCode, PhoneNumber) VALUES( CustID.NextVal, 'Mary Jones', '350', '5551234');
Retrieving the row just inserted:

SELECT FROM WHERE * CUSTOMER CustomerID = CustID.CurrVal;
10-15
The DROP and ALTER Statements

SQL DROP statements may be used to remove structures from the database
DROP TABLE Command:
Any data in the MYTABLE table will be lost DROP TABLE MyTable;
DROP SEQUENCE Command:

DROP SEQUENCE MySequence;
SQL ALTER statements may be used to drop (add) a column:

ALTER TABLE MYTABLE DROP COLUMN MyColumn; ALTER TABLE MYTABLE ADD C1 NUMBER(4);
10-16
The TO_DATE Function

Oracle requires dates in a particular format. Default format is DD-Mon-YY or DD-Mon-YYYY
e.g., November 12, 2002 is 12-NOV-02 or 12-NOV-2002
TO_DATE function may be used to identify the format:

TO_DATE('11/12/2002', 'MM/DD/YYYY')
11/12/2002 is the date value MM/DD/YYYY is the pattern to be used when interpreting the date
The TO_DATE function can be used with the INSERT and UPDATE statements to enter data:
INSERT INTO T1 VALUES( 100, TO_DATE ('01/05/02', 'DD/MM/YY');
10-17
Creating Indexes
Indexes are created to:
Enforce uniqueness on columns Facilitate sorting Enable fast retrieval by column values
Good candidates for indexes are columns that are frequently used with equal conditions in WHERE clause or in a join Examples:
CREATE INDEX CustNameIdx ON CUSTOMER(Name); CREATE UNIQUE INDEX WorkUniqueIndex ON WORK(Title, Copy, ArtistID);
Restrictions On Column Modifications

A column may be dropped at any time and all data will be lost A column may be added at any time as long as it is a NULL column To add a NOT NULL column:
Add a NULL column Fill the new column in every row with data Change its structure to NOT NULL:
ALTER TABLE T1 MODIFY C1 NOT NULL;
10-19
Creating Views
SQL-92 CREATE VIEW command can be used to create views in Oracle Unlike SQL-92, Oracle allows the ORDER BY clause in view definitions Oracle 9i and newer verions support the JOINON syntax Example:
CREATE VIEW CustomerInterests AS SELECT C.Name as Customer, A.Name as Artist FROM ART_CUSTOMER C JOIN CUSTOMER_ARTIST_INT I ON C.CustomerID = I.CustomerID JOIN ARTIST A ON I.ArtistID = A.ArtistID;
Customer Interests View
10-21
Application Logic
Oracle database application can be processed using:
Programming language to invoke Oracle DBMS commands Stored procedures The SQL*Plus Start (or @) command to invoke database commands stored in .sql files Triggers
10-22
Oracle Errors
Oracle error codes are cryptic For error explication:
http://otn.oracle.com/pls/db92/db92.error_search
10-23
Stored Procedures
A stored procedure is a PL/SQL or Java program stored within the database Stored procedures are programs that can:
Have parameters Invoke other procedures and functions Return values Raise exceptions
A stored procedure must be compiled and stored in the database The Execute or Exec command is used to invoke a stored procedure:
Exec Customer_Insert ('Michael Bench', '203', '555-2014', 'US');
10-24
PL/SQL Block Structure

[DECLARE constants, variables, cursors, user-defined exceptions <name> <type> <name> <columnName%TYPE>] BEGIN executable statements assignment operator is := [EXCEPTION actions to be taken when errors occur
WHEN <exceptionName> THEN ...; WHEN OTHERS THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Exception occurred' ); DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Error code: ' || SQLCODE); DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( SQLERRM ); ROLLBACK; ]
END;
10-25
IN signifies an input parameter; OUT signifies an output parameter; IN OUT is used for parameters with both functions
Variables are declared after the keyword AS
10-26
A more complete stored procedure

sp_VR_RecordSale.sql The setup:
update transaction set
salesprice = null, customerid = null where workid = 504;
SQL> VARIABLE vReturn VarChar2(100);
To execute:
SQL> exec Record_sale('Jack Jones', 'Chagall', 'Northwest by Night', '37/50', 70000, :vReturn); SQL> print vReturn;
success
10-27
PL/SQL Exceptions
Standard exceptions:
NO_DATA_FOUND TOO_MANY_ROWS INVALID_CURSOR
Exception block:
EXCEPTION WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'No data found' ); v_Return := 'Exception: No data found'; ROLLBACK; WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Too many rows found' ); v_Return := 'Exception: Too many rows found'; ROLLBACK; WHEN OTHERS THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Exception occurred' ); DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Error code: ' || SQLCODE); DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( SQLERRM ); v_Return := ( 'Exception: ' || SQLERRM ); ROLLBACK; END; 10-28
User-defined Exceptions
DECLARE no_such_customer EXCEPTION; . . BEGIN SELECT count(*) INTO v_rows WHERE . . . IF v_rows < 1 THEN RAISE no_such_customer; . . EXCEPTION WHEN no_such_customer THEN DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(No such customer in the database); ROLLBACK; WHEN OTHERS THEN . . . END
10-29
A note on Oracles table DUAL

DUAL is a table owned by SYS that has only 1 row, and only 1 column called dummy. The single field contains the single character X. To understand the SQL, note the following: SQL> select * from tab1; ENO ---------101 102 103 Now if you select an expression, say 1, from tab1 SQL> select 1 from tab1; 1 ---------1 1 1 If you select an expression a+b from tab1 SQL> select 'a+b' from tab1; 'A+ --a+b a+b a+b
Since DUAL has only 1 row, we can conveniently Use it to return single values: SQL> select SYSDATE from DUAL; SYSDATE --------08-APR-05 SQL> select 25000*.25 from DUAL; 25000*.25 --------6250 SQL> select CustomerID.nextVal from DUAL; NEXTVAL --------1020
Adapted from Indira Aramandla on http://forums1.itrc.hp.com/service/forums
10-30
Triggers
An Oracle trigger is a PL/SQL or Java procedures that is invoked when a specified database activity occurs Triggers can be used to:
Set default values Enforce a Data Constraint Update a view Enforce referential integrity action Handle exceptions
10-31
Triggers
Trigger types:
A command trigger will be fired once per SQL command A row trigger will be fired once for every row involved in the processing of a SQL command: There are three types of triggers: BEFORE, AFTER, and INSTEAD OF
BEFORE and AFTER triggers are placed on tables while INSTEAD OF triggers are placed on views Each trigger can be fired on INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE commands
This is a BEFORE trigger on INSERT on the table TRANSACTION. It is will set a default value on AskingPrice. Note the FOR EACH ROW phrase; it makes this a row trigger.
10-33
Triggers:
Enforcing a Required Child Constraint
There is a Mandatory-Mandatory relationship between WORK and TRANSACTION:
10-34
Triggers:
The hard way using two triggers this one enforces the required child:
10-35
Triggers:
The hard way using two triggers this one deletes any duplicate transaction:
(In case the application added a record to TRANSACTION, as well as the after-insert-on-WORK trigger on the previous slide.) Error: this should be an after trigger.
10-36
Triggers:
A better way - Create the Work_Trans view: CREATE VIEW SELECT FROM Work_Trans AS Title, Description, Copy, ArtistID, DateAcquired, AcquisitionPrice WORK W JOIN TRANSACTION T W.WorkID = T.WorkID;
ON
10-37
Triggers:
A better way using one trigger this one works with the Work_Trans view:
10-38
The OracleData Dictionary

Oracle maintains a data dictionary of metadata. The metadata of the dictionary itself are stored in the table DICT:
SELECT Table_Name, Comments FROM DICT WHERE Table_Name LIKE ('%TABLES%');
USER_TABLES contains information about user or system tables:

DESC USER_TABLES;
10-39
Example Oracle Metadata
10-40
Finding the text of a trigger
10-41
Likewise for a stored procedure
10-42
Transaction isolation problems

Lost updates Last one in, wins Dirty read T reads a changed record that is not yet committed. (What if the change is rolled back?) Nonrepeatable read T reads the same data a 2nd time, and finds changes due to the commitment of another transaction. Phantom read upon re-read of a table, T finds rows that were not there before.
Transaction Isolation Level
The more restrictive the isolation level, the lower the throughput.
10-44
Concurrency Control
Oracle processes database changes by maintaining a System Change Number (SCN)
SCN is a database-wide value that is incremented by Oracle when database changes are made
With SCN, SQL statements always read a consistent set of values; those that were committed at or before the time the statement was started Oracle only reads committed changes; it will never read dirty data
10-45
Oracle Transaction Isolation
10-46
Setting transaction isolation level in Oracle

Oracles Multiversion Read Consistency (MVRC) scheme never locks for reads.
Reads never block for writes Writes never wait for reads
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED

The default setting statement level consistency Oracle waits for locked resources, and then retries Dirty reads are impossible, but nonrepeatable reads and phantom reads are possible.
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE

Transaction level consistency Oracle waits for locked resource, and if blocking process commits, statement fails with Cannot Serialize exception.
ORA-08177 can't serialize access for this transaction Application must be prepared to handle the error
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ ONLY

Transaction-level read consistency reads will only see changes committed before the transaction began.
10-47
Oracle Security
Oracle security components:
An ACCOUNT is a user account A PROFILE is a set of system resource maximums that are assigned to an account A SYSTEM PRIVILEGE is the right to perform a task A ROLE consists of groups of PRIVILEGEs and other ROLEs
10-48
Account System Privileges

Each ACCOUNT can be allocated many SYSTEM PRIVILEGEs and many ROLEs An ACCOUNT has all the PRIVILEGEs:
That have been assigned directly. Of all of its ROLEs Of all of its ROLEs that are inherited through ROLE connections
A ROLE can have many SYSTEM PRIVILEGEs and it may also have a relationship to other ROLEs ROLEs simplify the administration of the database:
A set of privileges can be assigned to or removed from a ROLE just once
10-49
Account Authentication
Accounts can be authenticated by:
Passwords The host operating system
Password management can be specified via PROFILEs
10-50
Oracle Recovery Facilities

Three file types for Oracle recovery:
Datafiles contain user and system data ReDo log files contain logs of database changes:
OnLine ReDo files are maintained on disk and contain the rollback segments from recent database changes Offline or Archive ReDo files are backups of the OnLine ReDo files
Control files describe the name, contents, and locations of various files used by Oracle
10-51
Oracle Recovery Facilities

Oracle can operate in either ARCHIVELOG or NOARCHIVELOG mode:
If running in ARCHIVELOG mode, Oracle logs all changes to the database When the OnLine ReDo files fill up, they are copied to the Archive ReDo files
The Oracle Recovery Manager (RMAN) is a utility program used to create backups and to perform recovery.
10-52
Types of Failure
Oracle recovery techniques depend on the type of failure:
An application failure due to application logic errors An instance failure occurs when Oracle itself fails due to an operating system or computer hardware failure Oracle can recover from application and instance failure without using the archived log file A media failure occurs when Oracle is unable to write to a physical file because of a disk failure or corrupted files The database is restored from a backup
10-53
Oracle Backup Facilities

Two kinds of backups:
A consistent backup: Database activity must be stopped and all uncommitted changes have been removed from the datafiles
Cannot be done if the database supports 24/7 operations
An inconsistent backup: Backup is made while Oracle is processing the database

An inconsistent backup can be made consistent by processing an archive log file
10-54
Oracle Misc.
Looking up errors:
http://otn.oracle.com/pls/db92/db92.error_search
SQL*Plus guide:
https://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/doc/oracle/server803/A53718_01/ch1.htm set linesize xx set pagesize xx COLUMN <columnName> FORMAT <formatType>
Null value conversion

NVL( <column>, <value> )
Select name, salary + NVL( Commission, 0) as Total Salary from employee;
Printing in SQL*Plus
1. Set ServerOutput On 2. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( This will be printed );
10-55

Working With Oracle

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Working With Oracle

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David M.

Chapter Ten: Managing Databases with Oracle

Example of Oracle products:

Oracle Developer (Forms & Reports Builder)

Also third-party products - Quest Softwares TOAD

View Ridge Gallery

View Ridge Gallery Database Design

CHANGE/astring/bstring/ is used to change the contents of the current line:

SQL*Plus LIST Command

SQL*Plus: Changing a Line in the Buffer

Oracle Data Types

Oracle CREATE TABLE Statements for the View Ridge Schema

Oracle CREATE TABLE Statements for the View Ridge Schema

Entering data using a sequence:

Retrieving the row just inserted:

The DROP and ALTER Statements

DROP SEQUENCE Command:

SQL ALTER statements may be used to drop (add) a column:

The TO_DATE Function

TO_DATE function may be used to identify the format:

Restrictions On Column Modifications

Customer Interests View

PL/SQL Block Structure

Variables are declared after the keyword AS

A more complete stored procedure

SQL> VARIABLE vReturn VarChar2(100);

A note on Oracles table DUAL

Adapted from Indira Aramandla on http://forums1.itrc.hp.com/service/forums

The OracleData Dictionary

USER_TABLES contains information about user or system tables:

Example Oracle Metadata

Finding the text of a trigger

Likewise for a stored procedure

Transaction isolation problems

Transaction Isolation Level

Oracle Transaction Isolation

Setting transaction isolation level in Oracle

SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED

SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE

SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ ONLY

Account System Privileges

Password management can be specified via PROFILEs

Oracle Recovery Facilities

Oracle Recovery Facilities

Oracle Backup Facilities

An inconsistent backup: Backup is made while Oracle is processing the database

Null value conversion

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