EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 4: Individual
Differences

Robert J. Sternberg Wendy M. Williams
Learning Goals
1. Discuss what intelligence is, how it is
measured, theories of multiple intelligences,
and some controversies and issues about its
use by educators.
2. Describe learning and thinking styles.
3. Describe different approaches to understand
creativity and wisdom.

Individual differences in the classroom
Teachers need to be aware of individual
differences in students cognitive, or thinking,
styles and their learning styles. Individual
students also display different levels of
creativity.
A teachers challenge is to acknowledge the
differences among children.

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence
- capacity for goal directed and adaptive
behavior
- Involves certain abilities : profit from
experience, solve problems, and reason
effectively.
Psychometric Approaches to Intelligence ( the
search for factors underlying intelligence)
Intelligence tests
General intelligence factor (g)
Primary mental abilities

Binet Intelligence Tests
A new type of test, developed by Alfred Binet in
1904 to screen French school children for
potential academic problems.
Mental Age: The average age of the children who
achieve a certain level of performance
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score designed to
measure intelligence.




Mental Age
Chronological Age
(
) x 100
IQ=
Spearman and General Intelligence

Charles Spearman observed that people who
are good at one type of thinking or cognition
tend to do well in other types as well.
He came to believe that intelligence is
composed of a general ability, or g factor,
which underlies all intellectual functions.
There are also some other abilities ( specific
factors or s factor) that are involved in
performance on single type of mental ability.
Spearmans Theory of Intelligence
Spearman theorized
that individuals differ in
general intelligence (g).
To explain why
correlations among
tests are not perfect, he
theorized that each test
score is also affected by
the specific ability being
tested (s).

Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities

Louis L. Thurstone rejected Spearmans notion
of a general intellectual ability.
Thurstone identified seven primary mental
abilities: verbal comprehension, verbal
fluency, inductive reasoning, numerical
ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, and
memory.


Hierarchical Models
An attempt to use both Spearmans general factor
theory and Thurstones theory of seven primary
mental abilities.
Cattel and Horn suggested we can view (g) as the
top of hierarchy with two major group factors:
Fluid intelligence the ability to solve problems,
figure out what to do when one is not sure what
to do, and acquire new skills
Crystallized intelligence the use of acquired
skills and knowledge such as reading and language
skills

Biological Approaches to Intelligence
Neural Efficiency and
Intelligence: several
studies have suggested
that the speed of
conduction of neural
impulses may correlate
with intelligence as
measured by IQ tests.
Biological Approaches to Intelligence
(Cont.)
Is there relationship between brain size and
intelligence?
- The evidence turned up so far suggests that for
humans, the statistical relationship between these
two parameters is modest but significant. However,
how efficiently the brain is used is probably more
important than its size.

Cotemporary Systems Approach to
Intelligence (More than one type?)
Multiple Intelligences Theory
The Triarchic theory of Human Intelligence
Gardners Theory of Multiple
Intelligences
Howard Gardner denies the existence of a g
factor.
He proposes eight independent forms of
intelligence, or frames of mind.

Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2006
Gardners Eight Frames of Mind


Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternbergs
theory that there are three types of
intelligence componential (analytical),
experiential (creative), and contextual
(practical).
Sternberg claims that traditional IQ tests
measure only componential, or analytical,
intelligence.

Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2006
Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Analytical abilities Creative abilities Practical abilities
What each component holds?
Components of Analytical Subtheory
Meta
components Higher-order processes: control, monitor, evaluate, analyze
Performance
components
Basic operations: any cognitive processes : holding information,
making calculations, etc
Knowledge
Acquisition
components Gaining and storing new knowledge
Components of Creative Subtheory
Novelty
Insights, synthesis and the ability to react to novel situations and
stimuli; reflects how an individual connects internal world to
external reality Automation
Components of Practical Subtheory
Adaptation
"Street-smarts": to meet your goals: adapt to, change the, move
to a new environment
Includes emotional intelligence
Selection
Shaping
18


Critique of Contemporary Theories


Lack of Empirical Testing of Gardners
Theory
Broad Nature of the Triarchic
Theories

Current Educational Controversies in
Intelligence

The Source of Intelligence -Inherited Versus
Learned
Can Intelligence be Modified?
How do Teachers Deal with Varying Levels of
Intelligence?


The Source of Intelligence -Inherited
Versus Learned


Heritability: a measure of the degree to which a
characteristic is estimated to be influenced by
heredity.
Heritability coefficient :a number on a 0 to 1
scale. 0 indicates heredity has no influence on
variations among people; 1 means only heredity.
Nature-nurture controversy: the debate over
whether intelligence and other traits are
primarily the result of heredity (nature) or the
environment (nurture).



Nature's Influence on IQ Scores


The greater the
genetic similarity
between two
individuals, the more
similar are their IQ
scores.
This suggests a genetic
component to
intelligence.

Nurture's Influence on IQ Scores
All other things being
equal, two individuals
raised together will
have more similar IQ
scores than those raised
apart.
This is evidence that the
environment shapes
intelligence in important
ways.



Can Intelligence be Modified?
Intelligence: Fixed or Changeable?


None of us inherits a specific IQ score, instead
our genes probably set the boundaries of a fairly
wide range of possible performance levels, called
the reaction range.
Our environments determine where we end up
within that range.
IQ scores have been increasing roughly 9 points
per generation( every 30 years).(The Flynn effect)

Teaching Children of Various Levels:
Ability Grouping
Within-Class Ability Grouping: Within-class
ability grouping involves placing students in
two or three groups within a class according
to their ability or achievement.
Multi- age grouping: Classes include children
of various ages ( Joplin Plan) .


Between-Class Ability
Grouping and Tracking
Advantages
Narrows class skill range
Prevents less able
students from holding
back more talented
students

Disadvantages
Stigmatizes students in
lower track
May have less-
experienced teachers,
fewer resources, and
lower expectations
Segregates students by
SES and ethnicity

Cognitive styles and learning styles
What is a cognitive style?
- an individual's preferred way of mentally
processing information.
Two cognitive style dimensions:
- Reflectivity and Impulsivity
- Field-dependence and Field-independence
Cognitive styles and learning styles
What is a learning style?
- Students individual preferences or needs for
different learning conditions.
Deep vs. Surface Learning Styles

Deep Learners
Actively construct knowledge
Give meaning to material
Focus on internal rewards
Are self-motivated
Surface Learners
Are passive learners
Fail to tie information to a
larger framework
Focus on external rewards

Understanding Individual Differences
in Creativity

Creativity: the ability to produce work that is
novel, high in quality, and gives appropriate
ideas/solutions to problems.
Creativity
- The Mystical Approach
- The Psychometric Approach
- Social-Psychological Approaches
- A Confluence Approach
Wisdom
Wisdom: the power of judging rightly and
following the soundest course of action based
on knowledge, experience, and
understanding.
Sternberg on wisdom: it is the application of
intelligence, creativity, and knowledge by
positive ethical values.