COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN

The Hardware/Software Interface

5
th


Edition
Computer Abstractions
and Technology
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 2
The Computer Revolution
Progress in computer technology
Underpinned by Moores Law
Makes novel applications feasible
Computers in automobiles
Cell phones
Human genome project
World Wide Web
Search Engines
Computers are pervasive

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Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 3
Classes of Computers
Personal computers
General purpose, variety of software
Subject to cost/performance tradeoff

Server computers
Network based
High capacity, performance, reliability
Range from small servers to building sized

Classes of Computers
Supercomputers
High-end scientific and engineering
calculations
Highest capability but represent a small
fraction of the overall computer market

Embedded computers
Hidden as components of systems
Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 4
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 5
The PostPC Era
The PostPC Era
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 6
Personal Mobile Device (PMD)
Battery operated
Connects to the Internet
Hundreds of dollars
Smart phones, tablets, electronic glasses
Cloud computing
Warehouse Scale Computers (WSC)
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Portion of software run on a PMD and a
portion run in the Cloud
Amazon and Google
CSCI-263
Coordination of many
levels (layers) of abstraction
I/O system Processor
Compiler
Operating
System
(Mac OSX)
Application (ex: browser)
Digital Design
Circuit Design
Instruction Set
Architecture
Datapath & Control
transistors
Memory
Hardware
Software
Assembler
What is CSCI-365?
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 8
What You Will Learn
How programs are translated into the
machine language
And how the hardware executes them
The hardware/software interface
What determines program performance
And how it can be improved
How hardware designers improve
performance
What is parallel processing
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 9
Understanding Performance
Algorithm
Determines number of operations executed
Programming language, compiler, architecture
Determine number of machine instructions executed
per operation
Processor and memory system
Determine how fast instructions are executed
I/O system (including OS)
Determines how fast I/O operations are executed
Eight Great Ideas
Design for Moores Law
Use abstraction to simplify design
Make the common case fast
Performance via parallelism
Performance via pipelining
Performance via prediction
Hierarchy of memories
Dependability via redundancy
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 10

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Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 11
Below Your Program
Application software
Written in high-level language
System software
Compiler: translates HLL code to
machine code
Operating System: service code
Handling input/output
Managing memory and storage
Scheduling tasks & sharing resources
Hardware
Processor, memory, I/O controllers

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Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 12
Levels of Program Code
High-level language
Level of abstraction closer
to problem domain
Provides for productivity
and portability
Assembly language
Textual representation of
instructions
Hardware representation
Binary digits (bits)
Encoded instructions and
data
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 13
Components of a Computer
Same components for
all kinds of computer
Desktop, server,
embedded
Input/output includes
User-interface devices
Display, keyboard, mouse
Storage devices
Hard disk, CD/DVD, flash
Network adapters
For communicating with
other computers

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The BIG Picture
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 16
Opening the Box
Capacitive multitouch LCD screen
3.8 V, 25 Watt-hour battery
Computer board
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 17
Inside the Processor (CPU)
Datapath: performs operations on data
Control: sequences datapath, memory, ...
Cache memory
Small fast SRAM memory for immediate
access to data
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 18
Inside the Processor
Apple A5
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 19
Abstractions
Abstraction helps us deal with complexity
Hide lower-level detail
Instruction set architecture (ISA)
The hardware/software interface
Application binary interface
The ISA plus system software interface
Implementation
The details underlying and interface
The BIG Picture
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 20
A Safe Place for Data
Volatile main memory
Loses instructions and data when power off
Non-volatile secondary memory
Magnetic disk
Flash memory
Optical disk (CDROM, DVD)
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 21
Networks
Communication, resource sharing,
nonlocal access
Local area network (LAN): Ethernet
Wide area network (WAN): the Internet
Wireless network: WiFi, Bluetooth
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 22
Technology Trends
Electronics
technology
continues to evolve
Increased capacity
and performance
Reduced cost
Year Technology Relative performance/cost
1951 Vacuum tube 1
1965 Transistor 35
1975 Integrated circuit (IC) 900
1995 Very large scale IC (VLSI) 2,400,000
2013 Ultra large scale IC 250,000,000,000
DRAM capacity

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Microprocessor Complexity
2X Transistors / Chip
Every 1.5 years

Called
Moores Law
Gordon Moore
Intel Cofounder
Year
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Memory Capacity (Single-Chip DRAM)
size
Year
B
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s
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
100000000
1000000000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
year size (Mbit)
1980 0.0625
1983 0.25
1986 1
1989 4
1992 16
1996 64
1998 128
2000 256
2002 512
2004 1024 (1Gbit)
2006 2048 (2Gbit)

Now 1.4X/yr, or 2X every 2 years
8000X since 1980!
B
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Year
Memory
DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since 96);
64x size improvement in last decade
Processor
Speed 2x / 1.5 years (since 85); [slowing!]
100X performance in last decade
Disk
Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since 97)
250X size in last decade
Computer Technology Dramatic
Change!
Performance Metrics
Purchasing perspective
given a collection of machines, which has the
best performance ?
least cost ?
best cost/performance?
Design perspective
faced with design options, which has the
best performance improvement ?
least cost ?
best cost/performance?
Both require
basis for comparison
metric for evaluation
Our goal is to understand what factors in the architecture contribute
to overall system performance and the relative importance (and cost)
of these factors
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 27
Defining Performance
Which airplane has the best performance?
0 100 200 300 400 500
Douglas
DC-8-50
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Boeing 747
Boeing 777
Passenger Capacity
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Douglas DC-
8-50
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Boeing 747
Boeing 777
Cruising Range (miles)
0 500 1000 1500
Douglas
DC-8-50
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Boeing 747
Boeing 777
Cruising Speed (mph)
0 100000 200000 300000 400000
Douglas DC-
8-50
BAC/Sud
Concorde
Boeing 747
Boeing 777
Passengers x mph

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Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 28
Response Time and Throughput
Response time
How long it takes to do a task
Throughput
Total work done per unit time
e.g., tasks/transactions/ per hour
How are response time and throughput affected
by
Replacing the processor with a faster version?
Adding more processors?
Well focus on response time for now
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 29
Relative Performance
Define Performance = 1/Execution Time
X is n time faster than Y
n = =
X Y
Y X
time Execution time Execution
e Performanc e Performanc
Example: time taken to run a program
10s on A, 15s on B
Execution Time
B
/ Execution Time
A

= 15s / 10s = 1.5
So A is 1.5 times faster than B
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 30
Measuring Execution Time
Elapsed time
Total response time, including all aspects
Processing, I/O, OS overhead, idle time
Determines system performance
CPU time
Time spent processing a given job
Discounts I/O time, other jobs shares
Comprises user CPU time and system CPU
time
Different programs are affected differently by
CPU and system performance
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 31
CPU Clocking
Operation of digital hardware governed by a
constant-rate clock
Clock (cycles)
Data transfer
and computation
Update state
Clock period
Clock period: duration of a clock cycle
e.g., 250ps = 0.25ns = 25010
12
s
Clock frequency (rate): cycles per second
e.g., 4.0GHz = 4000MHz = 4.010
9
Hz
Review: Machine Clock Rate
Clock rate (clock cycles per second in
MHz or GHz) is inverse of clock cycle time
(clock period)
CC = 1 / CR
one clock period
10 nsec clock cycle => 100 MHz clock rate
5 nsec clock cycle => 200 MHz clock rate
2 nsec clock cycle => 500 MHz clock rate
1 nsec (10
-9
) clock cycle => 1 GHz (10
9
) clock rate
500 psec clock cycle => 2 GHz clock rate
250 psec clock cycle => 4 GHz clock rate
200 psec clock cycle => 5 GHz clock rate
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 33
CPU Time
Performance improved by
Reducing number of clock cycles
Increasing clock rate
Hardware designer must often trade off clock
rate against cycle count
Rate Clock
Cycles Clock CPU
Time Cycle Clock Cycles Clock CPU Time CPU
=
=
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 34
CPU Time Example
Computer A: 2GHz clock, 10s CPU time
Designing Computer B
Aim for 6s CPU time
Can do faster clock, but causes 1.2 clock cycles
How fast must Computer B clock be?
4GHz
6s
10 24
6s
10 20 1.2
Rate Clock
10 20 2GHz 10s
Rate Clock Time CPU Cycles Clock
6s
Cycles Clock 1.2
Time CPU
Cycles Clock
Rate Clock
9 9
B
9
A A A
A
B
B
B
=

=

=
= =
=

= =
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 35
Instruction Count and CPI
Instruction Count for a program
Determined by program, ISA and compiler
Average cycles per instruction
Determined by CPU hardware
If different instructions have different CPI
Average CPI affected by instruction mix
Rate Clock
CPI Count n Instructio
Time Cycle Clock CPI Count n Instructio Time CPU
n Instructio per Cycles Count n Instructio Cycles Clock

=
=
=
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 36
CPI Example
Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0
Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
Same ISA
Which is faster, and by how much?
1.2
500ps I
600ps I
A
Time CPU
B
Time CPU
600ps I 500ps 1.2 I
B
Time Cycle
B
CPI Count n Instructio
B
Time CPU
500ps I 250ps 2.0 I
A
Time Cycle
A
CPI Count n Instructio
A
Time CPU
=

=
= =
=
= =
=
A is faster
by this much
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 37
CPI in More Detail
If different instruction classes take different
numbers of cycles

=
=
n
1 i
i i
) Count n Instructio (CPI Cycles Clock
Weighted average CPI

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n
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Count n Instructio
Count n Instructio
CPI
Count n Instructio
Cycles Clock
CPI
Relative frequency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 38
CPI Example
Alternative compiled code sequences using
instructions in classes A, B, C
Class A B C
CPI for class 1 2 3
IC in sequence 1 2 1 2
IC in sequence 2 4 1 1
Sequence 1: IC = 5
Clock Cycles
= 21 + 12 + 23
= 10
Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0
Sequence 2: IC = 6
Clock Cycles
= 41 + 12 + 13
= 9
Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5
A Simple Example
How much faster would the machine be if a better data cache
reduced the average load time to 2 cycles?
How does this compare with using branch prediction to shave
a cycle off the branch time?
What if two ALU instructions could be executed at once?
Op Freq CPI
i
Freq x CPI
i
ALU 50% 1
Load 20% 5
Store 10% 3
Branch 20% 2
E =
.5
1.0
.3
.4
2.2
CPU time new = 1.6 x IC x CC so 2.2/1.6 means 37.5% faster
1.6
.5
.4
.3
.4
.5
1.0
.3
.2
2.0
CPU time new = 2.0 x IC x CC so 2.2/2.0 means 10% faster
.25
1.0
.3
.4
1.95
CPU time new = 1.95 x IC x CC so 2.2/1.95 means 12.8% faster
Determinates of CPU Performance
CPU time = Instruction_count x CPI x clock_cycle
Instruction_
count
CPI clock_cycle
Algorithm
Programming
language
Compiler
ISA
Core
organization
Technology
Determinates of CPU Performance
CPU time = Instruction_count x CPI x clock_cycle
Instruction_
count
CPI clock_cycle
Algorithm
Programming
language
Compiler
ISA
Core
organization
Technology
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 43
Performance Summary
Performance depends on
Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI
Programming language: affects IC, CPI
Compiler: affects IC, CPI
Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI, T
c
The BIG Picture
cycle Clock
Seconds
n Instructio
cycles Clock
Program
ns Instructio
Time CPU =
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 44
Power Trends
In CMOS IC technology

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Frequency Voltage load Capacitive Power
2
=
1000 40 5V 1V
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 45
Reducing Power
Suppose a new CPU has
85% of capacitive load of old CPU
15% voltage and 15% frequency reduction
0.52 0.85
F V C
0.85 F 0.85) (V 0.85 C
P
P
4
old
2
old old
old
2
old old
old
new
= =


=
The power wall
We cant reduce voltage further
We cant remove more heat
How else can we improve performance?
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 46
Uniprocessor Performance

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Constrained by power, instruction-level parallelism,
memory latency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 47
Multiprocessors
Multicore microprocessors
More than one processor per chip
Requires explicitly parallel programming
Compare with instruction level parallelism
Hardware executes multiple instructions at once
Hidden from the programmer
Hard to do
Programming for performance
Load balancing
Optimizing communication and synchronization
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 48
SPEC CPU Benchmark
Programs used to measure performance
Supposedly typical of actual workload
Standard Performance Evaluation Corp (SPEC)
Develops benchmarks for CPU, I/O, Web,
SPEC CPU2006
Elapsed time to execute a selection of programs
Negligible I/O, so focuses on CPU performance
Normalize relative to reference machine
Summarize as geometric mean of performance ratios
CINT2006 (integer) and CFP2006 (floating-point)
n
n
1 i
i
ratio time Execution
[
=
Semiconductor Technology
Silicon: semiconductor
Add materials to transform properties:
Conductors
Insulators
Switch
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 49
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 50
Manufacturing ICs
Yield: proportion of working dies per wafer
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 51
CINT2006 for Intel Core i7 920
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 52
Intel Core i7 Wafer
300mm wafer, 280 chips, 32nm technology
Each chip is 20.7 x 10.5 mm
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 53
SPEC Power Benchmark
Power consumption of server at different
workload levels
Performance: ssj_ops/sec
Power: Watts (Joules/sec)
|
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=

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10
0 i
i
10
0 i
i
power ssj_ops Watt per ssj_ops Overall
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 54
Integrated Circuit Cost
Nonlinear relation to area and defect rate
Wafer cost and area are fixed
Defect rate determined by manufacturing process
Die area determined by architecture and circuit design
2
area/2)) Die area per (Defects (1
1
Yield
area Die area Wafer wafer per Dies
Yield wafer per Dies
wafer per Cost
die per Cost
+
=
~

=
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 55
SPECpower_ssj2008 for Xeon X5650
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 56
Pitfall: Amdahls Law
Improving an aspect of a computer and
expecting a proportional improvement in
overall performance

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20
80
20 + =
n
Cant be done!
unaffected
affected
improved
T
factor t improvemen
T
T + =
Example: multiply accounts for 80s/100s
How much improvement in multiply performance to
get 5 overall?
Corollary: make the common case fast
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 57
Fallacy: Low Power at Idle
Look back at i7 power benchmark
At 100% load: 258W
At 50% load: 170W (66%)
At 10% load: 121W (47%)
Google data center
Mostly operates at 10% 50% load
At 100% load less than 1% of the time
Consider designing processors to make
power proportional to load
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 58
Pitfall: MIPS as a Performance Metric
MIPS: Millions of Instructions Per Second
Doesnt account for
Differences in ISAs between computers
Differences in complexity between instructions
6
6
6
10 CPI
rate Clock
10
rate Clock
CPI count n Instructio
count n Instructio
10 time Execution
count n Instructio
MIPS

=
CPI varies between programs on a given CPU
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 59
Concluding Remarks
Cost/performance is improving
Due to underlying technology development
Hierarchical layers of abstraction
In both hardware and software
Instruction set architecture
The hardware/software interface
Execution time: the best performance
measure
Power is a limiting factor
Use parallelism to improve performance

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