AIR POLLUTION

Dr. B. B. Ale
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering
Tribhuvan University
2008
 AIR POLLUTION
• Accumulation of any substances in the air
in sufficient concentration to effect man,
animals, vegetation or other materials.
• Air + contaminants => Air pollution
• These contaminants include gases (SOx,
NOx, CO, HC etc), particulate matters
(smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols),
radioactive materials and many others.
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Nepal

Averaging Concentration in
S.N. Parameters Units
Time Ambient Air, maximum
Test Methods

TSP (Total
Annual -
1 Suspended µg/m
3

Particulates) 24-hours* 230 High Volume Sampling

Annual -
2 PM10 µg/m
3
24-hours* 120 Low Volume Sampling
Diffusive sampling based on weekly
Annual 50
3 Sulphur Dioxide µg/m
3
averages
24-hours** 70 To be determined before 2005.
Diffusive sampling based on weekly
Annual 40
4 Nitrogen Dioxide µg/m
3
averages
24-hours** 80 To be determined before 2005.
8 hours** 10,000 To be determined before 2005.
5 Carbon Monoxide µg/m3
15 minute 100,000 Indicative samplers ***
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry,
Annual 0.5
6 Lead µg/m
3
analysis of PM10 samples****
24-hours -
Diffusive sampling based on weekly
Annual 20*****
7 Benzene µg/m
3
averages
24-hours -

*Note: 24 hourly values shall be met 95% of the time in a year. 18 days per calendar year the standard may be exceeded
but not on two consecutive days.
**Note: 24 hourly standards for NO2 and SO2 and 8 hours standard for CO are not to be controlled before MoPE has
recommended appropriate test methodologies. This will be done before 2005.
***Note: Control by spot sampling at roadside locations: Minimum one sample per week taken over 15 minutes during peak
traffic hours, i.e. in the period 8am - 10am or 3pm - 6pm on a workday. This test method will be re-evaluated by 2005.
****Note: If representativeness can be proven, yearly averages can be calculated from PM10 samples from selected
weekdays from each month of the year.
*****Note: To be re-evaluated by 2005.
Kath AQMM: National AAQS
Parameter AVG Time Conc., Max. Conc., Max. (WHO,2005)
TSP 24 hour 230 µg/m3
PM2.5 Annual 10 µg/m3
24 hour 25 µg/m3
PM10 Annual 20 µg/m3
24 hour 120 µg/m3 50 µg/m3
NO2 Annual 40 µg/m3 40 µg/m3
24 hour 80 µg/m3 200 µg/m3 (1-hour)
SO2 Annual 50 µg/m3 20 µg/m3
24 hour 70 µg/m3 500 µg/m3 (10-min)
CO 8 hour 10,000 µg/m3
15 minute 100,000 µg/m3
Lead Annual 0.5 µg/m3
Benzene Annual 20 µg/m3
Ozone 8-hour 100 µg/m3
 AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH - WHO
Key Facts:
• Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health and is estimated to cause approximately 2
million premature deaths worldwide per year.
• Exposure to air pollutants is largely beyond the control of individuals and requires action by public
authorities at the national, regional and even international levels.
• The WHO Air quality guidelines represent the most widely agreed and up-to-date assessment of
health effects of air pollution, recommending targets for air quality at which the health risks are
significantly reduced.
• By reducing particulate matter (PM10 ) pollution from 70 to 20 micrograms per cubic metre, we can
cut air quality related deaths by around 15%.
• By reducing air pollution levels, we can help countries reduce the global burden of disease from
respiratory infections, heart disease, and lung cancer.
• The WHO guidelines provide interim targets for countries that still have very high levels of air
pollution to encourage the gradual cutting down of emissions. These interim targets are: a maximum
of three days a year with up to 150 micrograms of PM10 per cubic metre (for short term peaks of air
pollution), and 70 micrograms per cubic metre for long term exposures to PM10 .
• More than half of the burden from air pollution on human health is borne by people in developing
countries. In many cities, the average annual levels of PM10 (the main source of which is the burning
of fossil fuels) exceed 70 micrograms per cubic metre. The guidelines say that, to prevent ill health,
those levels should be lower than 20 micrograms per cubic metre.
 KEY FINDINGS IN 2005 AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES - WHO

• There are serious risks to health from exposure to PM and O3 in many cities
of developed and developing countries. It is possible to derive a quantitative
relationship between the pollution levels and specific health outcomes
(increased mortality or morbidity). This allows invaluable insights into the
health improvements that could be expected if air pollution is reduced.
• Even relatively low concentrations of air pollutants have been related to a
range of adverse health effects.
• Poor indoor air quality may pose a risk to the health of over half of the
world’s population. In homes where biomass fuels and coal are used for
cooking and heating, PM levels may be 10–50 times higher than the
guideline values.
• Significant reduction of exposure to air pollution can be achieved through
lowering the concentrations of several of the most common air pollutants
emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels. Such measures will also
reduce greenhouse gases and contribute to the mitigation of global
warming.
 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
LEVEL
3 3
S/N POLLUTANTS COUNTRY AVERAGE TIME ppm mg/m microgram/m
Japan 24 h 10 11.5 11,500
8h 20 23 23,000
USA 8h 8.6 10 10,000
1h 35 40 40,000
1 CO Germany 24 h 8.6 10 10,000
15 min - 100 100,000
WHO 30 min - 60 60,000
1h - 30 30,000
8h - 10 10,000
Japan 24 h 0.02 0.04 40
USA 1 year 0.05 0.1 100
2 NO2 Germany 30 min 0.05 0.1 100
WHO 24 h - 0.15 150
1h - 0.35 400
Japan 24 h 0.04 0.1 100
USA 1 year 0.03 0.08 80
24 h 0.14 0.365 365
1h 0.5 1.3 1300
3 SO2 Germany 24 h 0.06 0.15 150
WHO 24 h - 0.125 125
1h 0.3 0.35 350
10 min 0.43 0.5 500
Japan 24 h - 0.1 100
1h - 0.2 200
USA 1 year - 0.06 60
4 SPM 24 h - 0.15 150
Germany 1 year - 0.1 100
24 h - 0.2 200
WHO 24 h - 0.12 120
5 PM10 24 h - 0.07 70
Sources: The World"s Air Quality Management Standards, EPA, 1974
WHO/UNEP, 1992
 CRITERIA POLLUTANTS
• Six pollutants have been identified as criteria
pollutants as they are the contributors to both
sulfurous and photochemical smog problems.
• They are
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
– Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
– Oxides of sulphur (SOx)
– Lead (Pb)
– Ozone (O3)
– Particulate matter (PM)
4- SCALE OF CONCENTRATION
• Mass concentration scale
• Volume concentration scale
• Volume concentration scale in
parts per million
• Mass-volume concentration
scale
MASS CONCENTRATION
Mass concentration scale, wp
Wp = mp/ (ma+mp)
Where;
mp – mass of pollutant
Ma – mass of pure air in a given
volume of air-pollutant
mixture
VOLUME CONCENTRATION SCALE

• Volume concentration scale, Yp

Yp = Vp/(Va+Vp)
Where;
Vp – volume of the pollutants
Va – volume of the pure air
VOLUME CONCENTRATION SCALE in ppm
• Volume concentration scale in parts per
million (ppm)
– Yppm = Yp x 10^6
 MASS-VOLUME CONCENTRATION SCALE

• It is ratio of the mass of the pollutant to the

volume of the air and pollutant combined
• ρp = Mp/(Va+Vp), µg/m3
• ρp = Mp/Vp x Ypp x 10^(-6)
Notes:
• ρp = Mp / [(Va+Vp)/Vp x Vp] x Ypp/(Ypx10^6)
= Mp/[1/Yp x Vp] x Ypp/ (Ypx10^6)
= Mp x Yp x 1/Vp x Ypp/(Ypx10^6)
= Mp/Vp x Ypp x 10^(-6)
 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

• Depending upon the process of formation

• Based on the types of pollutants
• Based on the nature of source
• Based on the source types
 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
• Depending upon the process of formation:
– Primary pollutants: they are emitted directly from the
source (volcanic ash, CO from motor vehicle)
• Oxides of S, N, & C
• Organic compounds (fuel vapors & solvent like HCs)
• Particulate matters (smoke, fumes and dust)
• Metal oxides of Pb, Cd, Cu & Fe
• Odors
• Toxic substances
Among the large number of primary pollutants
emitted into the atmosphere, only a few are
present in sufficient concentrations to be of
immediate concerns. They are Particulate
matters, Sox, NOx, CO, HC
– Secondary pollutants
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

• Depending upon the process of formation:

– Primary pollutants: they are emitted directly from the
source (volcanic ash, CO from motor vehicle)
– Secondary pollutants: they are formed from the
primary pollutants by chemical interaction with some
constituent present in the atmosphere (SO3, NO2,
O3, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), aldehydes, various
sulphates and nitrate salts etc.)
• Based on the types of pollutants:
– Gaseous pollutants: SOx, NOx, CO, HCs, etc.
– Particulates: smokes, dust, fumes, aerosols etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
• Based on the nature of source
– Point source or single source: steel mills, power
plants, oil refineries, paper & pulp mills
– Spread sources or multiple or area sources: an
entire residential area
– Line source: highways carrying moving vehicles
• Based on the source types
– Combustion
– Industrial
– Power plants
 TYPES OF SOURCES
• Natural sources:
– Volcanic ash and gases
– Smoke and harmful trace gases fro forest fires
– Dust storms
• Anthropogenic sources:
– Combustion:
• combustion of fossil fuels: SO2, NOx, CO, PM, water
vapor and traces of metal oxides of mercury, lead &
cadmium
• incineration of solid combustible wastes: aldehydes,
benzo-α-pyrene, CO, NOx, SO2, HCs, NH3, PM
 TYPES OF SOURCES
• Anthropogenic sources:
– Combustion:
– Chemical & metallurgical industries:
• Iron & steel industry: dust, fumes, HC, H2S, SO2
• Non-metallic mineral industries (cement, glass,
ceramics, refractories): hazardous dust
• Chemical process industries: SO2, SO3, NH3, NO2,
HF, HCl, H2S; C6H6, C6H5CH3, CCl4
• Petroleum refining operations: oxides of S and S
containing vapors, particulates from catalyst
regenerations and recycling, H2S & mercaptans
• Pulp & paper industry: H2S, methyl mercaptan,
methyl sulphides, particulates
• Food processing industries: dust, odors, nitrates &
phosphates, pesticides, arsenic & lead particulates
 PROPERTIES OF AIR POLLUTANTS –
PARTICULATE MATTER
• Particulate matter: they are suspended droplets or solid
particles or mixture of the two.
• Particulates can be composed of inert or extremely
reactive materials, ranging in size (i.e. diameter) from
100 µm to 0.1 µm or less.
• The inert materials do not react readily with the
environment nor do they exhibit any morphological
changes as a result of combustion r any other processes
whereas the reactive materials could be further oxidized
or may react chemically with the environment.
• They may reduce visual amenity and adversely impact
health.
 PARTICULATE MATTER

• PM may either be primary pollutant such as

smoke particles, or a secondary pollutant formed
from the chemical reaction of gaseous pollutants
such as dust, smoke, plant spores, bacteria,
salt, fumes, mist, fog, aerosol
• Human activities resulting in PM in air includes:
mining, burning of fossil fuels, transportation,
agriculture & hazard reducing burning, the use
of incinerators, the use of solid fuel for cooking
and heating
 PARTICULATE MATTERS
• PM can be usefully classified by size:
– Large particles settle out f the air quickly while smaller
particles may remain suspended for days r months
– Rainfall is an important mechanism for removing
particles from the air
• The size of particles also determine its potential
impact on human health.
– Large particles are usually trapped in the nose and
throat and swallowed
– Smaller particles may reach the lungs and cause
irritation there
 CLASSIFICATION OF PMS
Dust:
• It contains particles of size ranging from 1 to 200
µm
• It is formed by natural disintegration of rock and
soil or by the mechanical processes of grinding
and spraying
• They have large settling velocities & are
removed from the air by gravity and other inertial
processes
• Fine dust particles act as centers of catalysis for
many of the chemical reactions taking pace in
the atmosphere
 CLASSIFICATION OF PMs
Smoke:
• It contains fine or very small liquid or solid
particles
• Size ranges from 0.01 to 1µm in diameter
• It is formed b incomplete combustion or by
other chemical processes
• It may have different colors depending
upon the nature of other materials burnt
 CLASSIFICATION OF PMs
Fumes:
• They are solid particles of sizes ranging from 0.1
to 1µm.
• They are released from chemical and
metallurgical processes
Mist:
• It is made up of liquid droplets having size less
than 10µm.
• It is formed by condensation in atmosphere or is
released from industrial operations
 CLASSIFICATION OF PMs
Fog:
• It is air-borne liquid having size of 1 to 100µm.
• It is the mist in which the liquid is water & is
sufficiently dense to obscure vision.
Smog:
• It implies an air mixture of smoke particles, mists
and fog droplets of such concentration and
composition as to impart visibility in addition to
being irritating or harmful
• The composition varies widely between the
different locations and times (0.01 to 0.1µm)
• Smog + fog + mist => visibility reduced
 CLASSIFICATION OF PMs

Aerosol:
• It includes all air-borne suspensions either
sold or liquid having size smaller than
1µm.
 SIZES
OF
ATMOS
PHERIC
PM
 HEALTH EFFECT OF PM
The toxic effect of particles can be grouped
into three categories:
• Interference of the inert particles with the
clearing mechanisms of the respiratory tracts
• Particles act as the carriers of adsorbed toxic
gases such as SO2 and produce synergistic
effects
• Particles may be intrinsically toxic because
of their physical or chemical characteristics.
 MAJOR HEALTH IMPACTS
• Acute respiratory infection (ARI) –
damages lung’s defense mechanisms and
causes cardiovascular disease & lung
cancer
• Triggers asthma
• Causes irritation in the eye
• Low birth weight
 HEALTH IMPACT DUE TO SIZE AND NUMBER
• Particles in the size range 1-10µm have measurable
settling velocities but are readily stirred by air
movement
• Particles of size range 0.1-1µm have small settling
velocities
• Particles of size below 0.1µm, s submicroscopic size
found in urban air, undergo random Brownian motion
resulting from collisions among, individual molecules
• Most urban particulates have size in the range 0.1 to
10µm
• The smallest and the finest particles are the ones which
cause significant damage to health
 HEALTH IMPACT DUE TO SIZE AND NUMBER

• Ultrafine particles tend to behave more like gases

and hence travel to the lower region of the lungs as
compared to the larger particles which tend to
deposited in the upper or middle region of the
respiratory tract
• Ultrafine particles are extremely toxic to the lungs,
even when they comprise materials that are not toxic
when present in the larger particles
• The smaller the particle, the greater the fraction of
particles deposited in airways and lungs, and the
greater the surface area available for interaction with
biological systems
HEALTH IMPACT DUE TO COMPOSITION OF PM

• Organic compounds lead to mutations & even

lung cancer
• Materials of biological origin (fungal spores &
pollens) induce a variety of allergic responses
• Sulphates and nitrate ions lead to significant
impairment of the respiratory tract because of
their acidic potential
• Carbonaceous materials in core lead to lung
irritation & damage after chronic exposure
 DIESEL PARTICLES
• Size: mostly smaller than 1µm in diameter
• They have carbonaceous core with a large
surface area to which various organic
compounds are adsorbed, including
carcinogenic polycyclic and nitro-polycyclic
hydrocarbons
• They also adsorb allergens from grass
pollen, thus potentially increasing allergen
deposition in the respiratory tract
 MECHANISMS OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF PM

• Dose: a quantity of materials that reaches a

target
• Adult human lung: surface are 40-120m2;
inhales 10,000 to 20,000 liters of ambient air per
day
• Lung defenses: The lung has evolved a multi-
layered defense mechanism to counter inhaled
particles and it responds particulate pollution
with the same defense mechanism as it does to
pollens and spores
 CONCLUSIONS ON PM
• While a large body of studies links adverse health effects
of particles less than 10µm in diameter (PM10), the latest
evidence strongly indicates that the fine (size < 2.5µm)
and ultrafine (size < 0.1µm) fractions of PM are most
harmful because of their ability to penetrate deeply into
the lungs.
• For a given mass, the surface area & the particle no.
increase dramatically as the particle size decreases. As
a result, a smaller mass of PM which happens to consist
primarily of ultrafine particles can be more damaging
than a greater mass of PM10 but with the significant
fraction falling in the coarse range.