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Endocrine Glands
o Hormone function
• Second messenger system
Peptide hormone binds to a receptor protein on
the plasma membrane
Peptide hormone (“first messenger”) activates a
“second messenger” (cyclic AMP and calcium)
Second messenger sets in motion an enzyme
cascade that leads to a cellular response
Change in cellular behavior
Formation of an end product that leaves the cell
Fig 10.2 Binding of a peptide hormone leads to
cAMP activation of an enzyme cascade
Fig 10.2
Endocrine Glands
Fig 10.3
Control of Hormonal Secretions
o Hypothalamus
• Controls secretions of the pituitary
gland
• Neurosecretory cells produce
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
Pituitary Gland Control
•Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate cells of
anterior pituitary to release hormones
o Posterior pituitary
• Stores hypothalamic hormones ADH
and oxytocin
• ADH
Released when neurons in the
hypothalamus detect that the blood is too
concentrated with salt
Causes more water to be reabsorbed into
kidney capillaries
Raises blood pressure by vasoconstriction
of blood vessels
Diabetes insipidus results from the
inability to produce ADH
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
• Oxytocin
Causes uterine contraction during
childbirth
Causes milk letdown when a baby is
nursing
Release of oxytocin is controlled by
positive feedback
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
o Anterior pituitary
• Controlled by hypothalamic hormones
• Hormones that affect other glands
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Gonadotropic hormones
• Effects of other hormones
Prolactin (PRL)
Growth hormone (GH)
Hypothalamic Hormones
Hormones of the Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
o Thyroid Gland
• Two forms of thyroid hormone
Triiodothyronine (T3) contains 3 iodine
atoms
Thyroxine (T4) contains 4 iodine atoms
• Effects of thyroid hormone
Increase the metabolic rate
Stimulate all cells of the body
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretions
( -
) ()
Fig 10.4
eg.TRH
() -
( )
eg.TSH
eg.T3, T4
Thyroid and Parathyroid
• Simple goiter
Caused by a lack of
iodine
Thyroid enlarges in Fig 10.7
response to constant
stimulation by the
anterior pituitary
Thyroid and Parathyroid
• Congenital hypothyroidism
Thyroid fails to develop
properly
Undersecretion of thyroid
hormone
Individuals are short and Fig 10.8
stocky
• Myxedema
Hypothyroidism in adults
Characterized by
Lethargy
Weight gain
Loss of hair
Slower pulse rate
Lowered body
temperature
Thick and puffy skin
Thyroid and Parathyroid
• Calcitonin
Helps control blood calcium levels
Secreted when the blood calcium levels
rise
Brings about the deposit of calcium in the
bones
Thyroid Gland Hormones
Disorders of the Thyroid Gland
Thyroid and Parathyroid
o Parathyroid Glands
• Posterior surface of the thyroid gland
• Produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Causes blood phosphate (HPO42-) level to decrease
Causes blood calcium (Ca2+) level to increase
Promotes the release of calcium from the bones
Promotes the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
Activates vitamin D in the kidneys, which
stimulates the reabsorption of calcium from the
intestines
Hypocalcemic tetany results when there is
insufficient secretion of PTH
Parathyroid Hormone
o Adrenal Medulla
• Inner portion
• Under nervous control
• Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• Causes “fight or flight” responses
• Provide a short-term response to
stress
Adrenal Glands
o Adrenal Cortex
• Outer portion
• Under the control of ACTH
• Hormones
Provide a long-term response to stress
Mineralcorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Male and female sex hormones
Fig 10.10 Adrenal glands. Adrenal medulla & Adrenal cortex
under control of the hypothalamus and respond to stress
• Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Raises the blood glucose level in at least 2
ways:
Promotes the breakdown of muscle proteins to
amino acids which pass to the bloodstream.
Liver then converts excess amino acids to
glucose.
Promotes the metabolism of fatty acids instead
of carbohydrates as spares glucose for the
brain
Counteracts the inflammatory response
and can relieve swelling and pain e.g.
arthritis and bursitis
Can also make a person susceptible to injury
and infection
Adrenal Glands
• Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
Targets the kidney
Promotes renal absorption of sodium and water
Promotes renal excretion of potassium
ACTH is not the primary controller for aldosterone
secretion
Renin-Angiotensin mechanism stimulates
aldosterone secretion when the blood sodium level
and blood pressure are low
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system raises
blood pressure in two ways:
Angiotensin II constricts arterioles
Aldosterone causes the kidneys to reabsorb sodium
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is antagonistic to
aldosterone
Fig 10.11
Adrenal Glands
Insulin
Secreted by beta-cells pancreatic islets or
islets of Langerhans
Secreted when blood glucose level is high
Stimulates the uptake of glucose by most
body cells
sensitive body cells are unable to take up
and/or metabolize glucose
Pancreas
Glucagon
Also secreted by the pancreas
Secreted when blood glucose levels are low
Targets liver and adipose tissue
Stimulates liver to break down glycogen to
glucose
when blood glucose levels decrease, it
stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the
liver which raises the glucose level in the
blood
• Diabetes milletus
Characterize by elevated 2 hour serum glucose
levels after intake of 75g glucose and does
NOT resume below 200mg/dL within 2 hours.
sometimes greatly elevated from 1 to 5 hours.
Symptoms:
Polyphagia – extreme hunger
Glycosuria – glucose in the urine
Polyuria – excessive water loss through urine
Polydipsia – extreme thirst
Pancreas
• Androgens
Increased testosterone secretion during
puberty stimulates the growth of the
penis and the testes
Brings about and maintains the male
secondary sex characteristics
Facial, axillary, and pubic hair
Enlargement of larynx and the vocal cords
Muscular strength
Stimulates oil and sweat glands of the
skin
Other Endocrine Glands
o Thymus Gland
• Most active during childhood
• Transforms lymphocytes into thymus-
derived lymphocytes (T-lymphocytes)
• Epithelial cells secrete hormones
called thymosins
o Pineal Gland
• Located in the brain
• Produces the hormone melatonin
• Melatonin is involved in daily sleep-
wake cycle
Other Endocrine Glands
• Prostaglandins
Potent chemical signals
Act locally
Some effects of prostaglandins include:
Uterine contractions
Mediate the effects of pyrogens
Reduce gastric secretion
Lower blood pressure
Inhibit platelet aggregation
The Importance of Chemical Signals