COMPRESSIBILITY

OF SOIL
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Settlement
Total vertical deformation at soil
surface resulting from the load
Consolidation (volume change velocity)
Rate of decrease in volume with respect to time
Compressibility (volume change flexibility)
Volume decrease due to a unit load
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Shrinkage
Volume contraction of soil due to reduction in
water content
Swelling
Volume expansion of soil due to increase in water
content
Contraction (temperature expansion)
Change in volume of soil due to a change in
temperature
Causes of compression:
Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
Relocations of soil particles
Deformation of soil particles
When stressed, soil deforms
Stressed released, deformation remains
Soil deformation:

Distortion (change in shape)
Compression (change in volume)
Both
Components of Settlement:
Immediate Settlement, Si
caused by the elastic deformation of dry, moist,
and saturated soils, without any change in
moisture content
Primary Consolidation Settlement, Sc
caused by a volume change in saturated
cohesive soils due to expulsion of water that
occupies the void spaces
Secondary Consolidation Settlement, Ss
Caused by plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is
an additional form of compression that occurs at
constant effective stress
Total Settlement, St
St = Si + Sc + Ss
Soil Movement:
Downward: load increase or lowering water table
Upward: temporary or permanent excavation
Points of Interest:
HOW MUCH SETTLEMENT OCCURS?
o depends on the rigidity of soil skeleton
o compression of sand occurs instantly
o consolidation of cohesive soil is time dependent

HOW FAST SETTLEMENT OCCURS?
o depends on permeability of soil
Compressibility of Soil
Assumption in settlement:
100 % saturated and 1D (vertical) soil deformation
When soil is loaded it will compress because of:
Deformation of soil grains (small ~ negligible)
Compression of air and water in the voids
Squeezing out of water and air from the voids
Compressible soil mostly found below the water
table ~ considered fully saturated
As pore fluid squeezed out:
Soil grain rearrange themselves ~ stable/denser
configuration
Decrease in volume ~ surface settlement resulted
CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY
System is analog to soil layer
at equilibrium with weight of
all soil layer (overburden)
above it.
Valve is closed.
Piston is loaded, compresses
a spring in chamber.
Hydrostatic pressure = uo
At equilibrium: time, t=0
Spring ~ soil skeleton
Water ~ water in pores
Valve ~ pore sizes in soil/permeability
Soil is loaded by increment p.
Valve initially closed.
Pressure(p) is transferred to
the water.
As water is incompressible and
valve still closed, no water is
out, no deformation of piston.
Pressure gauge read: u = p
where u is excess hydrostatic
pressure.
To simulate a fine-grained
cohesive soil, where
permeability is low, valve can
be opened.
Water slowly leave chamber.
Under load p (0<t<)
Spring ~ soil skeleton
Water ~ water in pores
Valve ~ pore sizes in soil/
permeability
uo+u
To simulate a fine-grained
cohesive soil, where
permeability is low, valve can
be opened.
Water slowly leave chamber.
As water flows out, load (p) is
transferred to the spring.
At equilibrium, no further water
squeezed out, pore water
pressure back to its hydrostatic
condition.
Spring is in equilibrium with load
po + p.
Settlement s exist.
At equilibrium (t=)
Spring ~ soil skeleton
Water ~ water in pores
Valve ~ pore sizes in soil/
permeability
po+p
SETTLEMENT PROCESS:
Initially all external load is transferred into excess
pore water (excess hydrostatic pressure)
No change in the effective stress in the soil
Gradually, as water squeezed out under pressure
gradient, the soil skeleton compress, take up the
load, and the effective stress increase.
Eventually, excess hydrostatic pressure becomes
zero and the pore water pressure is the same as
hydrostatics pressure prior to loading.
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED
AND OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS
When soil is loaded to a
stress level greater than it
ever experienced in the
past, the soil structure is
no longer able to sustain
the increased load, and
start to breakdown.
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc:
Maximum pressure experienced by soil in the past
Normally Consolidated: OCR = 1
When the preconsolidation pressure is equal to
the existing effective vertical overburden
pressure, Pc = Po
Present effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressure that soil has been subjected in
the past
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc:
Maximum pressure experienced by soil in the past
Overconsolidated: OCR > 1
When the preconsolidation pressure is greater
than the existing effective vertical overburden
pressure Pc > Po
Present effective overburden pressure is less than
that which the soil has been subjected in the past
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc:
Maximum pressure experienced by soil in the past
Underconsolidated: OCR < 1
When the preconsolidation pressure is less than
the existing effective vertical overburden pressure
Pc < Po
e.g. recently deposited soil geologically or
manually.
Mechanism causing preconsolidation:
Change in total stress due to:
Removal of overburden
Past structures
Glaciation
Environmental changes such as pH, temperature,
and salt concentration
Change in pore water pressure:
Change in water table elevation
Artesian pressure
Deep pumping, flow into tunnel
Desiccation due to surface drying and plant life
Chemical alteration due to weathering,
precipitation, cementing agents, ion exchange
Consolidation Test Data Plots
How to determine Pc?
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY
SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
Example
From the given soil profile shown, the ground surface is
subjected to a uniform increase in vertical pressure of 12 N/cm
2
.
Compute the buoyant unit weight of clay.
Compute the overburden pressure Po of mid-height of the
compressible clay layer.
Compute the total settlement due to primary consolidation.
Sand ydry = 17.6 kN/m
3

y = 10.4 kN/m
3

Clay LL = 45
w = 40 %
ys = 27.8 kN/m
3

P = 12 N/cm
2

4.6 m
5.86 m
7.6 m
Example
From the given soil profile shown, given B = 1.5 m, and L = 2.5 m.
The footing carries a load of 120 kN.
Compute the average effective pressure at mid-height of
clay layer.
Compute the average increase of effective pressure in the
clay layer using 2:1 method.
Compute the primary consolidation settlement of the
foundation.
Sand ysat = 15 kN/m
3

ysat = 18 kN/m
3

Clay LL = 38
w = 35 %
Gs = 2.7
1.5 m
1.5 m
2.5 m
Example
Prior to placement of a fill covering a large area at a site, the
thickness of a compressible soil layer was 10 m. Its original in situ
void ratio was 1.0. Some time after the fill was constructed,
measurements indicated that the average void ratio was 0.8.
Estimate the settlement of the soil layer.
Example
Example
The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay
specimen are as follows:
e1 = 1.12 P1 = 90 kPa
e2 = 0.90 P2 = 460 kPa
Compute the compression index.
Find the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kPa.
Determine the coefficient of compressibility.
Example
In a laboratory consolidation test on a clay sample the following
results were obtained:
e1 = 0.92 P1 = 50 kPa
e2 = 0.78 P2 = 120 kPa
Thickness of the sample of clay = 25 mm
Time for 50 % consolidation = 2.5 min
Tv = 0.197
Find the coefficient of volume compressibility
Determine the coefficient of consolidation if sample of clay
was drained on both sides.
Compute the hydraulic conductivity of the clay.