I.C.

T
ASSIGNMENT
on
Human Respiration

SUBMITTED BY:-
GUIDED BY :-
Jeetu Dongre &
Mr. M.U.Paily sir
Anand K. Verma
Human Respiratory System
Functions:
 Works closely with circulatory system,
exchanging gases between air and blood:
 Takes up oxygen from air and supplies it to

blood (for cellular respiration).

 Removal and disposal of carbon dioxide

from blood (waste product from cellular

respiration).
Homeostatic Role:
 Regulates blood pH.
 Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide

levels.
Blood Transports Gases Between Lungs and Tissues
Human Respiratory System
Components:
Nasal cavity, throat (pharynx), larynx (voice box),
trachea, bronchi, alveoli, and lungs.
Pathway of Inhaled Air:
◆ Nasal cavity
◆ Pharynx (Throat)
◆ Larynx (Voice Box)
◆ Trachea (Windpipe)
◆ Bronchi
◆ Bronchioles
◆ Alveoli (Site of gas exchange)

Exhaled air follows reverse pathway.

Human Respiratory System
1. Nasal cavity: Air enters nostrils, is filtered by hairs, warmed, humidified,
and sampled for odors as it flows through a maze of spaces.
2. Pharynx (Throat): Intersection where pathway for air and food cross. Most
of the time, the pathway for air is open, except when we swallow.
3. Larynx (Voice Box): Reinforced with cartilage. Contains vocal cords, which
allow us to make sounds by voluntarily tensing muscles.
 High pitched sounds: Vocal cords are tense, vibrate fast.

 Low pitched sounds: Vocal cords are relaxed, vibrate slowly.

 More prominent in males (Adam’s apple).

Human Respiratory System
4. Trachea (Windpipe): Rings of cartilage maintain shape of
trachea, to prevent it from closing. Forks into two bronchi.
5. Bronchi (Sing. Bronchus): Each bronchus leads into a lung and
branches into smaller and smaller bronchioles, resembling an
inverted tree.
6. Bronchioles: Fine tubes that allow passage of air. Muscle layer
constricts bronchioles. Epithelium of bronchioles is covered
with cilia and mucus.
 Mucus traps dust and other particles.

 Ciliary Escalator: Cilia beat upwards and remove trapped

particles from lower respiratory airways. Rate about 1 to 3

cm per hour.
Pulmonary Function Tests
 Assessed by spirometry.
 Subject breathes into a closed system in
which air is trapped within a bell floating
in H20.
 The bell moves up when the subject
exhales and down when the subject inhales.
 Spirogram
 Tidal volume:
 Amount of air expired with each breath.
 Vital capacity:
 The maximum amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after maximum
inhalation.
 Table 16.3 Terms Used to Describe Lung Volumes
and Capacities
Term Definition
Lung Volumes The four nonoverlapping components of the total lung
capacity
Tidal volume The volume of gas inspired or expired in an unforced
respiratory cycle
Inspiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be inspired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume The maximum volume of gas that can be expired during
forced breathing in addition to tidal volume
Residual volume The volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
Lung Capacities Measurements that are the sum of two or more lung volumes
Total lung capacity The total amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum
inspiration
Vital capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a
maximum inspiration
Inspiratory capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired after a
normal tidal expiration
Functional residual capacity The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal
expiration
Anatomical Dead Space
 Not all of the inspired air reached the alveoli.
 As fresh air is inhaled it is mixed with anatomical
dead space.
 Conducting zone and alveoli where 02
concentration is lower than normal and C02
concentration is higher than normal.
 Alveolar ventilation: f x (TV- DS)
 F = frequency (breaths/min.).

 TV = tidal volume.

 DS = dead space.
 Restrictive and Obstructive
Disorders
 Restrictive
disorder:
 Vital capacity is

reduced.
 FVC is normal.

 Obstructive
disorder:
 VC is normal.

 FEV is
1
reduced.
Breathing Ventilates the Lungs
Breathing: Alternation of inhalation and exhalation.
Supplies our lungs with oxygen rich air, and expels excess
carbon dioxide.
◆ Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, moving downward and
causing rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to expand. Air
rushes in, due to decrease in internal lung pressure as
lungs expand.
◆ Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, moving upwards and
causing rib cage, chest cavity, and lungs to contract. Air
rushes out, due to the increase in internal lung pressure as
lungs contract.
Breathing is controlled by centers in the nervous system to
keep up with body’s demands.
Hemoglobin helps transport CO2 and buffer blood
Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells
Functions:
 Transports oxygen
 Transport carbon dioxide
 Helps buffer blood
As carbon dioxide is picked up from tissues it is converted
into carbonic acid:

CO2 + H2O <-----> H2CO3 <----> H+ + HCO3 -

Carbon Carbonic acid Carbonate ion
dioxide
Hemoglobin picks up most H + ions, so they don’t acidify the
blood.
Hemoglobin Loading and Unloading of Oxygen
Respiratory Acid-Base Balance

 Ventilation normally adjusted to keep

pace with metabolic rate.
 H2CO3 produced converted to CO2,
and excreted by the lungs.
 H20 + C02 H2C03 H+ + HC03-
Respiratory Acidosis
 Hypoventilation.
 Accumulation of CO2 in the tissues.

 pH decreases.
 Plasma HCO3- increases.

 Pc02 increases.
Respiratory Alkalosis
 Hyperventilation.
 Excessive loss of CO2.

 pH increases.
 Plasma HCO3- decreases.

 Pc02 decreases.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Respiratory rate: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.
 In one day, an average human:
 Breathes 20,000 times
 Inhales 35 pounds of air
 Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with
solid particles, ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and many other damaging chemicals.
 Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases
including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Respiratory rate: 10 to 14 inhalations/minute.
 In one day, an average human:
 Breathes 20,000 times
 Inhales 35 pounds of air
 Most of us breathe in air that is heavily contaminated with
solid particles, ozone, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, and many other damaging chemicals.
 Breathing contaminated air can cause a number of diseases
including asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Cigarette smoke is one of the worse air pollutants.
 Over 1 million people start smoking every year.
 Kills about 350,000 people every year in U.S.
 Contains 4000 different chemicals.
 Each cigarette smoked subtracts about 5
minutes from life expectancy.
 Cigarette smoke paralyzes cilia in airways,
preventing them from removing debris and from
protecting delicate alveoli.
 Frequent coughing is the only way airways can
clean themselves.
 Cigarette smoke also causes fetal damage, which
can result in miscarriage, premature birth, low
birth weight, and poor development.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Asthma: Condition in which breathing is impaired by
constriction of bronchi and bronchioles, cough, and thick
mucus secretions. The severity and incidence of asthma
has risen dramatically in recent years, especially in
children. May be fatal if not treated.
Causes: Attacks may be precipitated by inhalation of
allergens (e.g.: pollen, cats, and cockroach proteins),
pollutants, infection, or emotional stress.
Treatment: Alleviates symptoms (e.g.: immuno-
suppressors, bronchodilators), but is not a cure.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Bronchitis: Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchi.
May present with cough, fever, chest or back pain, and fatigue.
Causes: Associated with smoking, pollution, and bacterial or viral
infections.

 Pneumonia: Acute inflammation of the lungs. Symptoms include

high fever, chills, headache, cough, and chest pain.
Causes: Bacterial, fungal, or viral infections.
Treatment: Antibiotics or other antimicrobials.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Emphysema: Permanent and irreversible destruction of
alveolar walls, resulting in loss of lung elasticity and gas
exchange surface.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, difficulty exhaling,
cough, weakness, anxiety, confusion, heart failure, lung
edema (swelling), and respiratory failure.
Causes: Smoking, pollution, old age, and infections.
Treatment: Oxygen to help breathing. No cure.
 Diseases of the Respiratory System
 Lung Cancer: Cancerous growth that invades and destroys lung
tissue. Very high fatality rate.
Symptoms include bloody sputum, persistent cough, difficulty
breathing, chest pain, and repeated attacks of bronchitis or
pneumonia.
Causes: Smoking (50% of all cases) and pollution (radon,
asbestos). Smokers are 10 times more likely to develop lung
cancer than nonsmokers.
Treatment: Surgery is most effective, but only 50% of all lung
cancers are operable by time of detection. Other treatments
include radiation and chemotherapy.
Human Fetus Exchanges Gases with Mother’s Blood
through the Placenta