Digestive System

Digestive (GI) Tract

General arrangement of abdominal GI
organs
Peritoneum
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity
Intraperitoneal organs
Retroperitoneal organs
Mesentaries
Double layered folds of peritoneum
Greater omentum
Lesser omentum
Mesentery proper
Suspends small intestine from posterior wall of abdomen
Mesocolon
Suspends large intestine
Peritoneal ligament
Peritoneum that attaches one organ to another

Actions of Digestive (GI) Tract
Ingestion
Occurs when material
enters via the mouth
Mechanical
Processing
Crushing / Shearing
makes material easier
to move through the
tract
Digestion
Chemical breakdown of
food into small organic
compounds for
absorption
Secretion
Release of water acids,
buffers, enzymes & salts by
epithelium of GI tract and
glandular organs
Absorption
Movement of organic
substrates, electrolytes,
vitamins & water across
digestive epithelium
Excretion
Removal of waste products
from body fluids
General Histology of GI Organs
from the esophagus
through the large
intestine
a tube
composed of four
concentric layers called
tunics.
From deep to
superficial, these
tunics are:
the mucosa
the submucosa
submucosal nerve plexus
(Meissner plexus)
the muscularis
myenteric plexus
(Auerbach plexus)
the adventitia or serosa
Totalitatea organelor n care are loc transformarea alimentelor n
substane simple, asimilabile, formeaz sistemul digestiv.
La om, ca i la mamiferele despre care ai nvat anul trecut, sistemul
digestiv este alctuit din tubul digestiv i glandele anexe.
Tubul digestiv este alctuit, la
rndul lui, din: cavitatea bucal,
faringele, esofagul, stomacul,
intestinul subire, intestinul
gros.
Comunicarea cu mediul
extern se realizeaz prin dou
orificii: gura i anusul.
Cavitatea bucal are n partea anterioar buzele, posterior- valul
palatin i omuorul, lateral- obrajii, n partea inferioara- podeaua
acoperit de limb, iar planeul bucal formeaz cerul gurii.
Cavitatea
oral
Opens to outside to facilitate feeding
Aids in preparation of food for digestion
Foods are broken down mechanically by chewing
Saliva is added as a lubricant from the auxiliary saliva glands
Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that digests starch
Serves as an organ for speech and pleasure
Includes cheeks, lips, tongue, palate, teeth primary & secondary



Cavitatea oral

OROPHARYNX
LARYNGOPHARYNX
Cavitatea oral
2
6
-
1
3
Two regions of the oral cavity
Vestibule is the space between the cheeks or lips
and the gums.
Oral cavity proper.
The lateral walls are formed by the cheeks.
Contain buccinator muscles
Lips (labia).
Orbicularis oris muscle
Keratinized stratified squamous ET
Gingivae, or gums.
Dense regular CT
Nonkeratinized ET
Labial frenulum.

Palatul
Hard palate
Anterior two-thirds of the palate
hard and bony
Soft palate
Posterior one-third
soft and muscular
primarily composed of skeletal
muscle.
Extending inferiorly from the posterior
part of the soft palate is the uvula.
When swallowing, the soft palate and
the uvula elevate to close off the
opening of the nasopharynx.
Fauces represent the opening between
the oral cavity and the oropharynx.
Fauces are bounded by paired muscular
folds:
glossopalatine arch (anterior fold)
pharyngopalatine arch (posterior fold)
Palatine tonsils are housed between the
arches.



Limba
An accessory digestive organ
Formed from:
skeletal muscle
covered with lightly keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium.
Manipulates and mixes ingested
materials during chewing
Forms the bolus.
a globular mass of partially
digested material
Performs important functions in
swallowing
Inferior surface of the tongue
attaches to the floor of the oral
cavity
By the lingual frenulum.
Numerous small projections (papillae)
cover the superior (dorsal) surface.
Posterior surface contains lingual
tonsils.
Skeletal muscles move the tongue.

Papilele linguale
Filiform papillae are the smallest
and most numerous. They are
aligned in parallel rows. These
papillae aid in licking and provide
friction for moving food by the
tongue.
Fungiform papillae are scattered
over the tongue surface. They have
a vascular core that gives them a
reddish hue. Also, they house taste
buds.
Vallate papillae are in V shaped
row at the back of the tongue. They
have bitter receptors.
Dinii aflai napoia buzelor, sunt nfipi
n oasele celor dou maxilare, n nite
caviti numite alveole.
Un om adult are 32 de dini, care nu
au aceeai form, datorit rolului diferit
pe care l ndeplinesc.
Dentiia
Incisors (8) for biting
food
Canines (4) - for grasping
and tearing food
Bicuspids (8) for
grinding and crushing
food
Molars (12) for grinding
food


Astfel, pe fiecare jumtate de
maxilar se gsesc:
doi incisivi, cu rol de tiere a
alimentelor (I)
un canin, cu rol de sfiere a
hranei (C)
doi premolari, care au dou
ridicturi (PM)
trei molari, cu patru ridicturi (M)
Premolarii i molarii (mselele)
au rol n mcinarea alimentelor.
Formula dentar a unui om adult
este urmtoarea:

Un dinte se compune din trei
pri: coroana, coletul (zona de
trecere spre rdcin) i
rdcin.
n seciune longitudinal se
observ smaltul care acoper
coroana, dentina se afl sub
smalt i cementul care acoper
rdcin.
Pulpa dentar este o cavitate
central aflat sub dentina.
Aceasta se continu n
rdcini, prin canale strbtute
de vase sangvine i de nervi
care trec prin vrful perforat al
rdcinilor spre alveola dentar.
n cursul vieii sale, omul are
dou dentiii succesive: dentiia
de lapte (20 de dini), numit aa
deoarece se dezvolt cnd hrana
principal a copilului este laptele,
i dentiia definitiv, pe care
omul o are ncepnd de la vrsta
de 6-7 ani i pn la sfritul
vieii.
Examinnd radiografia
reprodus n figur putei constata
cum se produce schimbarea
dinilor de lapte cu cei
definitivi.
22


Glandele salivare
Glandele salivare
Collectively produce and
secrete saliva.
a fluid that assists in the
initial activities of
digestion
Volume of saliva secreted
daily ranges between 1.0
and 1.5 L.
Most is produced during
mealtime
Smaller amounts are
produced continuously
to ensure that the oral
cavity remains moist.
Functions
Moisten food
Food molecules into
solution: taste
Form bolus: for
swallowing
Cleanse oral cavity.

Glandele salivare
Composition of saliva
1. 97-99% water with a pH of 6.7-7
2. Electrolytes mainly Na
+
, K
+
, Cl
-
, PO
4
-
, HCO
3
-

3. Salivary amylase
4. Mucin
5. IgA antibodies, lysozyme, defensins

Control of salivation
Parasympathetic division of ANS control the extrinsic glands. Uses both pressure
and chemoreceptors, to stimulate the salivatory nuclei in the medulla. Action
potentials return to the extrinsic salivary glands via cranial nerves VII, and IX. The
salvia released is serous containing salivary amylase.
Sympathetic division of ANS causes the release of a thick mucin rich salvia, and
inhibits the release of serous salvia. This results in a dry mouth.


Glanda parotid
Largest salivary glands.
located anterior and inferior to the ear
partially overlying the masseter muscle.
Produce about 2530% of saliva
conducted through the parotid duct to the oral cavity.
Glandele submandibulare
Inferior to the body of the
mandible.
Produce most of the
saliva (about 6070%).
ducts opens through a
papilla in the floor of the
mouth
lateral to the the lingual
frenulum.
Glandele sublinguale
Inferior to the tongue
internal to the oral cavity
mucosa.
Each gland has multiple
tiny sublingual ducts
open onto the inferior surface
of the oral cavity
posterior to the
submandibular duct papilla.
Contribute only about 3
5% of the total saliva.
Faringele

aflat n continuarea cavitii bucale- are form
de plnie;
locul n care se ntlnesc calea respiratorie cu
calea digestiva i n care se deschid trompele lui
Eustachio.
Faringele

The pharynx is divided into three
regions.

The nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
the laryngopharynx.

The mucosa is composed of stratified
squamous epithelium which is
supplied with mucus producing
glands.
Faringele

The external muscle layer
consists of 2 skeletal muscle
layers.
The internal layers run
longitudinally.
The outer layer encircles the
wall of the pharynx.
Contractions of these muscles
propel food into the
esophagus.
Esofagul
tub lung de 20-25 cm, aflat n continuarea
faringelui.
se deschide n stomac prin orificiul cardia.
Peretele sau este format n cea mai mare parte
din muchi netezi.
Esofagul
The esophagus is a muscular
tube about 25 cm long which
connects the pharynx with the
stomach.
The esophagus takes a straight
course through the mediastinum
of the thorax and pierces the
diaphragm at the esophageal
hiatus to enter the abdomen and
the stomach.
Esofagul
Esofagul
Stomacul
o parte dilatat a tubului digestiv,
cu o capacitate de circa 1500 cm3,
situat sub diafragm, n partea
stng.
Stomacul are forma literei J .
trecerea spre intestinul subire se
face prin orificiul pilor, care este
prevzut cu un sfincter; acesta se
deschide n momentul n care lasa
alimentele s nainteze spre intestin.
Peretele stomacului este alctuit
din trei straturi de muchi, iar
interiorul su este cptuit de
mucoasa gastric, n grosimea
creia se gsesc glande care
secret sucul gastric.
Stomacul
Major Functions of the
Stomach
Storage of ingested food
Mechanical breakdown of
ingested food
Disruption of chemical
bonds in food material by
acid and enzymes
Production of intrinsic
factor, a glycoprotein
required for absorption of
vitamin B
12
in small
intestine
Stomacul
Stomach
Gross anatomy
Cardia
Cardiac orifice
Fundus
Body
Pylorus
Pyloric sphincter
Pyloric orifice
Greater curvature
Greater omentum
Lesser curvature
Lesser omemtum
Gastric folds (rugae)
4
4
4
5
4
6
Stomacul
Stomacul

1. MUCOUS NECK CELLS--mucin
2. PARIETAL CELL--HCl, and intrinsic factor
3. CHIEF CELLS--pepsinogen
4. ENTEROENDOCRINE CELLSgastrin, histamine, serotonin, cholecystokinin, and
somatostatin.
Digestia gastric
Stomach performs preliminary digestion of proteins
by pepsin
Some digestion of carbohydrates (by salivary amylase)
Lipids (by lingual lipase)

Stomach contents
Become more fluid
pH approaches 2.0
Pepsin activity increases
Protein disassembly begins

Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients
are not absorbed there
Intestinul subire
de circa 8 m lungime, se
ndoaie, formnd cute.
n peretele su se gsesc dou
straturi de muchi, iar n interior
este cptuit cu mucoasa
intestinal n care se afl glande
care secret sucul intestinal.
Mucoasa intestinal prezint
numeroase cute pe care sunt
situate mici proeminene, numite
viloziti intestinale, cu o nlime
de 0,5 mm
Intestinul subire
Finishes chemical digestion
Responsible for absorbing most of the nutrients.
Ingested nutrients spend at least 12 hours in the small intestine.
thin-walled tube
about 6 meters (20 feet) in length.
coiled
Extends from the pylorus of the stomach to the cecum of the large intestine
occupies a significant portion of the abdominal cavity.
The duodenum
first segment of the small intestine.
approximately 25 centimeters (10 inches) long
originates at the pyloric sphincter
major duodenal papilla
The jejunum
middle region of the small intestine.
approximately 2.5 meters (7.5 feet)
makes up approximately two-fifths of the small intestines total length.
primary region for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
The ileum
is the last region of the small intestine.
about 3.6 meters (10.8 feet) in length
forms approximately three-fifths of the small intestine.
terminates at the ileocecal valve
sphincter that controls the entry of materials into the large intestine.

Cutele i vilozitile mresc considerabil suprafaa de contact cu
alimentele.
n viloziti se afla capilare sangvine i un vas limfatic.
Partea intestinului, lung de circa 25 cm, aflat n prelungirea stomacului
se numete duoden.
n curbura ase adpostete capul pancreasului.
Intestinul subire
Intestinul subire
90% of absorption occurs in the small intestine
Intestinul subire
The Duodenum
The segment of small intestine
closest to stomach
25 cm (10 in.) long
Mixing bowl that receives
chyme from stomach and
digestive secretions from
pancreas and liver
Functions of the duodenum
To receive chyme from
stomach
To neutralize acids before
they can damage the
absorptive surfaces of the
small intestine
Intestinul subire
The bile duct and the pancreatic
duct join to form the
hepatopancreatic ampulla which
opens into the duodenum.
DUODENUM
HEPATOPANCREATIC
AMPULLA
MAJOR DUODENAL
PAPILLA
Intestinul subire
The Jejunum
Is the middle segment of small intestine
2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long
Is the location of most
Chemical digestion
Nutrient absorption
Has few plicae circulares
Small villi
The Ileum
The final segment of small intestine
3.5 meters (11.48 ft) long
Ends at the ileocecal valve, a sphincter that controls flow
of material from the ileum into the large intestine

Intestinul subire
Intestinal Secretions
Watery intestinal juice
1.8 liters per day enter intestinal
lumen
Moisten chyme
Assist in buffering acids
Keep digestive enzymes and
products of digestion in solution
Intestinal Movements
Chyme arrives in duodenum
Weak peristaltic contractions
move it slowly toward jejunum
Myenteric reflexes
Not under CNS control
Parasympathetic stimulation
accelerates local peristalsis and
segmentation
Intestinul subire
The small intestine is highly adapted
for absorption. Its length, together with
its plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli
amplify its surface area enormously.
The plicae circularies are deep
permanent folds of the mucosa and
submucosa.
Villi are fingerlike projections of the
mucosa. The epithelial cells of the villi
are absorptive columnar cells. In the
core of each villus is dense capillary bed
and a lymph capillary the lacteal.

Intestinul subire
Microvilli, tiny projections of the plasma
membrane of the absorptive cells of the
mucosa, give the mucosal surface a fuzzy
appearance called the brush border.
The cells of the microvilli include simple
columnar epithelial cells, goblet cells,
scattered enteroendocrine cells, and T cells.
The plasma membrane of the epithelial cells
have enzymes called brush border enzymes
which complete the digestion of
carbohydrates and proteins.
Between the villi, the mucosa is studded
with pits that lead into tubular intestinal
glands called intestinal crypts.
The epithelial cells that line these crypts
secrete intestinal juice. The intestinal juice is
a waterly mixture containing mucus that
serves as a carrier fluid for absorbing
nutrients from chyme.



59
Coordination of Secretion
& Absorption
Intestinal Absorption
It takes about 5 hours for
materials
to pass from duodenum
to end of ileum
Movements of the
mucosa increases
absorptive effectiveness
Stir and mix intestinal
contents
Constantly change
environment around
epithelial cells

Intestinul gros
horseshoe shaped
Extends from end of ileum to anus
Lies inferior to stomach and liver
Frames the small intestine
Also called large bowel
Is about 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long and
7.5 cm (3 in.) wide
prezint n partea dreapt a
abdomenului o poriune numit
cecum, la captul creia se afla o
mic prelungire, apendicele.
Restul intestinului, numit colon, are
forma literei U, cu deschiderea n
jos.
Partea sa terminal, numit rect, se
deschide prin anus, nchis cu un
sfincter.

Intestinul gros
Reabsorption of water
Compaction of intestinal
contents into feces
Absorption of important
vitamins produced by
bacteria
Storage of fecal material
prior to defecation
Intestinul gros
The Cecum
Is an expanded pouch
Receives material arriving
from the ileum
Stores materials and begins
compaction
Appendix
Also called vermiform appendix
Is a slender, hollow appendage
about 9 cm (3.6 in.) long
Is dominated by lymphoid
nodules (a lymphoid organ)
Intestinul gros
Colon:
liquid residue mainly water with
undigested materal
water is absorbed,
bacterial fermentation takes place
feces are formed.
Has a larger diameter and thinner
wall than small intestine
The wall of the colon
Forms a series of pouches (haustra)
Haustra permit expansion and
elongation of colon


Intestinul gros
Ascending Colon
Begins at superior border of cecum
Ascends along right lateral and posterior wall of peritoneal cavity to inferior
surface of the liver and bends at right colic flexure (hepatic flexure)
Transverse Colon
Crosses abdomen from right to left; turns at left colic flexure (splenic flexure)
Is supported by transverse mesocolon
Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by greater omentum
The Descending Colon
Proceeds inferiorly along left side to the iliac fossa (inner surface of left ilium)
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to abdominal wall
The Sigmoid Colon
Is an S-shaped segment, about 15 cm (6 in.) long
Starts at sigmoid flexure
Lies posterior to urinary bladder
Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon
Empties into rectum

Intestinul gros
The Rectum
Forms last 15 cm (6 in.) of
digestive tract
Is an expandable organ for
temporary storage of feces
Movement of fecal material
into rectum triggers urge to
defecate
The anal canal is the last
portion of the rectum
Contains small longitudinal
folds called anal columns
Anus
Also called anal orifice
Is exit of the anal canal
Has keratinized epidermis
like skin
Movements of the Large Intestine
Gastroileal & gastroenteric reflexes
Move materials into cecum while
you eat
Movement from cecum to
transverse colon is very slow,
allowing hours for water absorption
Peristaltic waves move material
along length of colon
Segmentation movements
(haustral churning) mix contents
of adjacent haustra

Movements from transverse colon
through rest of large intestine
results from powerful peristaltic
contractions (mass movements)
Stimulus is distension of stomach
and duodenum; relayed over
intestinal nerve plexuses
Distension of the rectal wall
triggers defecation reflex
Two positive feedback loops
Both loops triggered by stretch
receptors in rectum
The colon mucosa is simple
columnar epithelium except in
the anal canal where it is
stratified squamous
epithelium.
There are no circular folds and
a reduced number of villi. The
mucosa is thicker, with a
larger number of globet cells.
Intestinul gros
Intestinul gros
Intestinul gros
The last segment of the large intestine is
the anal canal.
The anal canal is about 3 cm long. It
begins where the anus penetrates the
pelvic floor and it opens to the body
exterior at the anus.
The anal canal has 2 sphincters, an
internal and external.
It is lined with stratified squamous
epithelial tissue.
Digestion
Digestive system handles each nutrient differently
Large organic molecules
Must be digested before absorption can occur
Water, electrolytes, and vitamins
Can be absorbed without processing
May require special transport
Digestive Enzymes
Break molecular bonds in large organic molecules
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
In a process called hydrolysis
Are divided into classes by targets
Carbohydrases break bonds between simple sugars
Proteases break bonds between amino acids
Lipases separate fatty acids from glycerides
Water Absorption
Cells cannot actively absorb or secrete water
All movement of water across lining of digestive tract
Involves passive water flow down osmotic gradients


Role of Fiber in Digestion
Fiber is found mostly in plant
There are two types insoluble fiber and soluble fiber
Insoluble fiber is a type of fiber which cannot be dissolved in water
Insoluble fiber draws water to the intestine, increasing the bulk and
softness of waste products
Soluble fiber which can be dissolved in water
Soluble fiber can be digested slowly and it slows the digestive process and
keeps the stomach fuller longer leaving the body feeling full for a longer period
of time
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates are slower so that glucose
(sugar) in food enters the bloodstream more slowly, which keeps blood
sugar on a more even level
The slow absorption of sugar gives the body an opportunity to
regulate blood sugar levels
Histological Structure of the
Digestive (GI) Tract
Movement of Digestive Materials
By muscular layers of digestive tract
Consist of visceral smooth muscle
Along digestive tract:
Has rhythmic cycles of activities (PERISTALSIS)
Consists of waves of muscular contractions
Move a bolus along the length of the tract
Controlled by pacesetter cells
Surrounding the lumen of the tract
Cells undergo spontaneous depolarization
Triggering wave of contraction through entire muscular
sheet
Peristaltism
DIGESTIVE
PROCESS
Ingestion intake of food
Digestion breakdown of food bit by
bit into molecules small enough to be
absorbed
Mechanical Digestion physical
breakdown of food
Chemical Digestion chemical
breakdown of macromolecules to
monomers
Absorption transport of productions
into the blood
Elimination (Defecation) - elimination
of undigested waste

CHEMICAL
DIGESTION
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEIN
FATS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Common Disorders of
Digestive System
Stomach and duodenal ulcers
Cancers of the digestive system
Diarrhea
Lactose Intolerance
Hepatitis
Crohns Disease, GERD, Diverticular Disease, Celiac
Disease (National)


Sfrit