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Magnetism
GLY 4200
Fall, 2013
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Early Observations of Magnetism
Ancient Greeks, especially those near the
city of Magnesia, and Chinese, observed
natural stones that attracted iron
The naturally magnetic stones are called
lodestone
The Chinese discovered a steel needle
stroked by a lodestone became magnetic,
and, if suspended, pointed N-S
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What is Magnetism?
Although discovered relatively early in
mans history, and exploited, the causes of
magnetism were not understood
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Orbiting Electrons
Moving electrical currents generate
magnetic forces
This includes electrons orbiting and
spinning around a nucleus
Each orbiting electron possesses a magnetic
moment equal to 1 Bohr magnetron (B), or
0.927 x 10
-23
Am
2
(Amps meter
2
)
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Isolated Ions
Net magnetic moment is equal to the sum
of:
Orbital contributions
Spin contributions
Filled orbitals give a net contribution of
zero to the magnetic moment since the two
electrons orbit and spin oppositely
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Net Magnetic Moments
Generated only in atoms or ions with incomplete
electronic shells
Most important subshells likely to be incompletely
filled are the 3d (first transition row) and the 4f
(rare earth elements)
The second and third transition rows (4d and 5d
electrons) also produce magnetic moments but the
elements, and hence the minerals, are rare

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Three d Electrons
Three d electrons have large spin and relatively
low orbital contributions to magnetic moments
In compounds the orbital contribution is affected
by, and largely negated by, bonding to other ions
Since the 4s electrons are outside the 3d, the 3d
electrons are partially shielded and the orbital
contribution will not be entirely negated
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Spin Contribution
Spin contribution is largely responsible for
the 3d electrons contribution to the
magnetic moment and is proportional to the
number of unpaired d electrons
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Four f Electrons
In 4f electron containing elements, the
electrons are well-shielded by outer
electrons
The 4f electrons are not involved in bonding
and both orbital and spin effects contribute
to the total magnetic moment

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Magnetic Susceptibility
An aggregate of ions or atoms may behave
much differently than an individual ion
Magnetic Susceptibility is the ratio of
induced magnetization to the strength of the
external magnetic field causing the induced
magnetization
Magnetic susceptibility may be grouped
into different classes of behavior
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Diamagnetism
Minerals possessing ions with totally paired
electron spins
No transition elements are present, and the net
magnetic moment is zero
There are no unpaired electrons in the substance
In a strong magnetic field diamagnetic materials
exhibit a small negative magnetic susceptibility,
which means they are weakly repelled from the
magnet

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Paramagnetism
Transition metals ions are present but the magnetic
moments are randomly distributed
Unpaired electrons are present
Net field is zero, although an external field will
produce some alignment of dipoles, which
disappears when the external field is removed
Alignment of the magnetic dipoles produces a small
positive magnetic susceptibility and these minerals
are attracted to a magnet in a strong magnetic field
Example: olivine (Mg, Fe)
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SiO
4

Copper and Copper (I) Ion
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Ferromagnetism
Adjacent moments are aligned
After an external field is applied the dipoles
interact and the field remains locked in
The magnetism is due to unbalanced electron spin
in the inner orbits of the elements concerned
The ionic spacing in ferromagnetic crystals is such
that very large forces, called exchange forces,
cause the alignment of all atoms to give highly
magnetic domains
Para- & Ferromagnetism
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Making a Magnet
In unmagnetized metal these domains are
randomly oriented
After a strong magnetic field is applied the
domains align and the material remains a strong
magnet after the external field is removed
Examples of ferromagnetic materials are the
metals cobalt and nickel, and alloys such as alnicol
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Curie Temperature
Upon heating the domains may become
randomly aligned once again
This transition to a paramagnetic state is
called the Curie temperature, after Pierre
Curie, who was instrumental in elucidating
the behavior of paramagnetic materials
In metallic iron the Curie temperature is
770 C
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Antiferromagnetism
Alternate atoms have oppositely directed
moments
Magnetic susceptibility is low but increases
with increasing T up to the Nel
temperature
Above this temperature the susceptibility
falls and the material is paramagnetic
Examples include Cr metal, and compounds
like MnO, MnS, and FeO

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Louis E.F. Nel
The Nel temperature is
named after L.E.F. Nel, who
discovered the phenomenon
of the transition from
antiferromagnetism to
paramagnetism in 1930
Born 1904, died 2000
Nobel prize in physics, 1970
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Ferrimagnetism
Adjacent atoms have antiparallel alignment, but
the magnitude of the magnetic moments of
different ions is different
Cancellation is incomplete and strong magnetism
may exist
Alternatively, the number of magnetic moments
aligned in one direction may be different than in
another direction
Ferrimagnetic materials may have magnetism
similar to that of ferromagnetic materials
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Incorrect Identification
Some minerals have been incorrectly described in
the literature as being ferromagnetic when in fact
they are ferrimagnetic
Examples include ilmenite FeTiO
3
, magnetite
(Fe
3
O
4
or Fe
2+
Fe
2
3+
O
4
) and pyrrhotite (Fe
1-x
S, x =
0.0 0.2)
Curie temperature for magnetite is 85 C, much
lower than for metallic iron

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Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separation, based on the differing magnetic
susceptibilities of different minerals, is used in processing
minerals since many minerals, especially those containing iron,
are attracted to or repelled from a magnet in a strong magnetic
field
Magnetic separation is used in both laboratory and commercial
scales for mineral separation
Picture: Frantz laboratory magnetic mineral separator


Magnetic Separation Animation
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Aerial Remote Sensing of
Magnetism
An airplane flies over an area towing a
magnetometer, which measures local
perturbations of the earth's magnetic field
These aircraft fly low (100 to 300 meters)
and use highly sensitive magnetometers
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Diagram of Magnetometer Tow
Catalina aircraft fitted with a
magnetometer
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Sulfide Ore Bodies
Many sulfide ore bodies are associated with
magnetite and, although the magnetite itself may
have no economic value, the sulfides often are
valuable
This method is rapid and relatively cheap,
especially in areas of rough terrain
Any positive magnetic anomalies must be verified
by subsequent geophysical and geochemical
exploration
Aerial Magnetic Survey
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Paleomagnetism
Ferrimagnetic minerals are permanently
magnetized
Study of natural remnant magnetism of
rocks yields a record of the earths magnetic
field through time
This reveals polarity reversals, and can aid
in the study of plate motions
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Polarity
Reversal
Record
Paleomagnetic
record of 0-4
MYBP