BASIC CHARACTER OF DIGITAL

IMAGE
Continuous tone photograph.Orginal
200*200 digital image
Enlargement showing 20*20 of pixels
10*10 enlargement
Digital numbers corresponding to radiance
of each pixels
 INTRODUCTION
Some mathematical operations that are to be
applied to digital remote sensing input data to
improve the visual appearance of an image for
better interpretability or subsequent digital
analysis
 REASONS
Low contrast is due to
 Low sensitivity of detectors
 Weak signal of object present on earth
 Similar reflectance of different object
 Environmental conditions at the time of recording
 In remote sensing many digital enhancement algorithms are
available.They are
 Contrast stretching enhancement
 Ratioing Linear combinations
 Principle component analysis
 Spatial filtering
The digital enhancement increases the
seperability between the interested classes or
features. Broadly enhancement technique are
categorized as
Point operations
Local operations
 POINT OPERATIONS

Modify the values of each pixel in image data set

independently
Local operations modify the values of each pixel in the
context of the pixels values surrounding it.
 CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT

• It increasing the contrast between

targets and their background.
• CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT
In this pixels values clustered in narrow range
of grey values. I t can altered to full range of
grey values contrast between dark and light
areas of image would be improved
Objective of contrast is expand the narrow
dynamic range of grey values present in a
input image over a wide range of grey value
for the desired out put.
 CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT
Two types
 Linear contrast stretching
 Non linear contrast stretching
 LINEAR CONTRAST
ENHANCEMENT
• To expand the original brightness
values to make use of full range of
radiometric scale of sensor
• The lower value of original histogram is
assigned a zero brightness and upper
value assigned 255
LINEAR CONTRAST STRETCH
Enhancement
 Contrast Stretch
Maximum/Minimum
 Contrast Stretch
Percentage Linear

Enhances a
specific region
indicated by
the analysis
 LINEAR CONTRAST STRETCH
Digital number values DN in the lower end of
original histogram is assigned to zero that is
extremely black and value at higher end is
assigned to white DN =127 .The intermediate
values are interpolated between 0 and 127
 Y=a+Bx
X and y are input grey values of any pixels and
output grey values of same pixels.
A and b are intercept and slope
NON LINEAR ENHANCEMENT

• Histogram of input image does not show a

uniform distribution
LOGARITHMIC CONTRAST
Logarithmic contrast is very much useful for non
linear contrast enhancement.Here out put pixel grey
values will be generated from input pixel grey values

Yij-a log(Xij)+b
 HISTOGRAM
• It is graphical representation of the brightness
value that comprises an image.
• The brightness value displayed along the x axis
of the graph and the frequency of occurrence of
each value in the image on y axis
 HISTOGRAM EQUALISATION
In this enhancement the original histogram has
been readjusted to produce uniform population
density of pixels along the horizontal grey
value axis.
 METHODS
• The basic idea is to redistribute the original
histogram so that each brightness level has
approximately equal number of pixels.
• It increase the contrast in the heavily populated
range of histogram while reducing the contrast at
sparsely
 HISTOGRAM EQUALISATION

This technique first introduced by Gonzalez and

Wintz in 1977.
Histogram equalisation consist of two process.
 Compute the histogram of orginal image and
cumulative frequency density percentage.
 Computaion of transformation function based
on contrast manipulation in out put.
DIGITAL FILTERS
 SPATIAL FILTERING
Spatial filters are designed to highlight or
suppress specific features in an image based
on their spatial frequency..
Filtering is performed by using convolution
windows.
 Continue……….

Used to enhance the appearance of an

image
It is based on concept of image texture
It highlight or suppress specific features in
an image based on their spatial frequency
 PROCEDURE

• The window is moved over the input

image from extreme top left hand
corner of the scene
• The discrete mathematical function
transforming the original input image
digital number to a new digital value.
 SPATIAL FREQUENCY
• Spatial frequency is related to the concept of image texture
• It refers to the frequency of the variations in tone that appear in
an image.
– "Rough" texture: abrupt tonal change, high spatial frequencies
– "smooth" texture: little tonal variation, low spatial frequencies.
 Digital Filters

SPATIAL INFORMATION FREQUENCY

• Low frequency spatial information

• High frequency spatial information

• Median frequency spatial information

 DIGITAL FILTERS

• Low Pass (Averaging)

• High Pass
– Edge Detection
– Edge Enhancement

• Directional
 LOW PASS FILTERS
• Designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous
areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller
detail in an image.
• Thus, low-pass filters generally serve to
smooth the appearance of an image.
 CONVOLUTION FILTERING
• Involves moving a 'window' of a few pixels in
dimension (e.g. 3x3, 5x5, etc.)
• Central pixel of window is ‘replaced’ by a new
value calculated from window neighborhood
 LOW PASS FILTERING
• The window is moved along and the calculation is
repeated until the entire image has been filtered
and a "new" image has been generated.
• By varying the calculation performed and the
weightings of the individual pixels in the filter
window, filters can be designed to enhance or
suppress different types of features.
 Spatial Filtering (Masking)

Portion of
a digital image Mask

z1 z2 z3 w 1 w2 w3

z4 z5 z6 w4 w5 w6

z7 z8 z9 w7 w8 w9

Replace
with R = w1z1 + w2z2 + ….. +w9z9
 Image Texture

Coarse
(rough)
texture

Smooth
Texture
Moving Window
Moving Window Concept

Projection of 3x3 Kernel

The Moving Window

(kernel) scans the 3x3
neighborhood of every pixel
in the classified image.

Classified Image
 Moving Window Concept

A value is computed, depending on the

type of kernel, from the 9 values in the
input file and placed in the corresponding
cell of the output file.

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Moving Window Concept

Output File
Example: Mean Kernel Calculation
1/9 1/9 1/9
8 9 9 11 11 11
8 3 9 3 9 11 1/9 1/9 1/9
2 8 3 5 5 9 1/9 1/9 1/9
8 6 8 6 8 11
2 2 4 4 6 9
6 9 11 4 4 6
(3 + 5 + 5 + 8 + 6 + 8 + 4 + 4 + 6) / 9 = 5.44
or
Round(3 + 5 + 5 + 8 + 6 + 8 + 4 + 4 + 6) / 9 = 5
 Example: Mode Kernel Calculation

8 9 9 11 11 11
8 3 9 3 9 11 No Formula
2 8 3 5 5 9
8 6 8 6 8 11
2 2 4 4 6 9 In this example: The mode is
6 9 11 4 4 6 initially a 3. Then two 5s set
the mode to 5. Several other
pairs of numbers are then
found but they can’t beat the
pair of 5s. Output = 5
 Low Pass
• Used in removing noise
• Used in agggregating areas for classification
• Used to map long wavelength, low amplitude trends.
 Low-pass Filters
Moving Average Filter

(1/9)* 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
Median Filter

z1 z2 z3
z4 z5 z6 Replace
with
z7 z8 z9
R = median(z1, z2 , ….. , z9)
 Digital Filters

HIGH PASS FILTER

• Used to “sharpen” blurred images

• Used to map high spatial frequency features

• Edge detection

• Edge enhanced
It sharpen the appearance of fine
detail in an image
First apply low pass filter and then to
subs tract the result from the original
A simple high pass filter may be
implemented by subtracting a low
pass filtered image from the original
unprocessed image.
I t is by image subtracting method.
• Thomas et al developed a model

I” =I-FI’+C
I”= filtered pixel value
I=Original pixel value
I’=Average of window
F=proportion vary from 0 to 1
C=constant.
 High-pass Filters
Basic HP Filter

(1/9)* -1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1
Gradient Filter

z1 z2 z3
1 0 1 -1
z4 z5 z6
-1 0 0 0
z7 z8 z9

demos/demo2spatial_filtering/highpassdemo.m
 Low vs. High Pass Filter

Original Low pass High pass

 Digital Filters

Directional
• Used to map high spatial frequency features at a
particular orientation.
• Provide “illumination” across an image
(interpretation aid)
• Enhances structures orthogonal to the specified
direction.
 Detection of Discontinuities

Point Detection
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1

Line Detection (Prewitt’s Gradient)

-1 -1 -1 -1 0 1
0 0 0 -1 0 1
1 1 1 -1 0 1 demos/demo2spatial_filt
 Directional or Edge Filters
• Designed to highlight linear features, such as
roads or field boundaries.
• These filters can also be designed to enhance
features which are oriented in specific
directions.
 Edge Detection

Sobel Masks

-1 -2 -1 -1 0 1
0 0 0 -2 0 2
1 2 1 -1 0 1

>>edgedemo
demos/demo2spatial_filtering/edgegradientdemo.m >>edge
Edge Filters
 IMAGE TRANSFORMATION
 Arithmetic operations done to combine and transform
the original bands into "new" images which better
display or highlight certain features in the scene. e.g
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI),
PCA, HSI transforms
 These use multiple bands
• Generate new images from two or
more sources which tend to highlight
particular features or properties of
better than orginal image
• Addition ,substraction ,Division and
multiplication
 IMGE DIVISION

• Data from two different spectral

bands yield useful information
regarding the object.
NDVI IMAGE
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS
• It is to reduce the dimensionality in the
data and compress as much of information
in original bands into fewer bands
PRINCIPAL
COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS
• Plotted in spectral
space, all image data tend
to be highly correlated.
PRINCIPAL
COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS
•Principle
components analysis
plots the directions of
maximum variability
in a data set
PRINCIPAL
COMPONENTS
ANALYSIS
•These directions
are then used as new
image axis.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS

• De-correlates the image data.

• Produces an image of maximum variability.
• Good for detecting subtle spectral changes.