Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2006

-100
-50
0
50
100
2 4 6 8 10
ft
min
minutes
A honey bee makes several trips from the hive to a flower garden.
The velocity graph is shown below.
What is the total distance traveled by the bee?
200ft
200ft
200ft
100ft
200 200 200 100 700 + + + =
700 feet

-100
-50
0
50
100
2 4 6 8 10
ft
min
minutes
What is the displacement of the bee?
200ft
-200ft
200ft
-100ft
200 200 200 100 100 + =
100 feet towards the hive

To find the displacement (position shift) from the velocity function, we just integrate
the function. The negative areas below the x-axis subtract from the total
displacement.
( )
Displacement
b
a
V t dt =
}
( )
Distance Traveled
b
a
V t dt =
}
To find distance traveled we have to use absolute value.
Find the roots of the velocity equation and integrate in pieces, just like when we
found the area between a curve and the x-axis. (Take the absolute value of each
integral.)
Or you can use your calculator to integrate the absolute value of the velocity
function.

-2
-1
0
1
2
1 2 3 4 5
velocity graph
-2
-1
0
1
2
1 2 3 4 5
position graph
1
2
1
2
1
2
Displacement:
1 1
1 2 1
2 2
+ =
Distance Traveled:
1 1
1 2 4
2 2
+ + + =
Every AP exam I have seen has had at
least one problem requiring students to
interpret velocity and position graphs.

In the linear motion equation:

( )
dS
V t
dt
=
V(t) is a function of time.
For a very small change in time, V(t) can be considered a
constant.
( )
dS V t dt =
( )
S V t t A = A
We add up all the small changes in S to get the total distance.
1 2 3
S V t V t V t = A + A + A +
( )
1 2 3
S V V V t = + + + A

( )
S V t t A = A
We add up all the small changes in S to get the total distance.
1 2 3
S V t V t V t = A + A + A +
( )
1 2 3
S V V V t = + + + A
1
k
n
n
S V t
=
= A

1
n
n
S V t

=
= A

( )
S V t dt =
}
As the number of subintervals becomes infinitely large (and
the width becomes infinitely small), we have integration.

This same technique is used in many different real-life problems.

Example 5:
National Potato Consumption
The rate of potato consumption for a
particular country was:
( )
2.2 1.1
t
C t = +
where t is the number of years since 1970 and
C is in millions of bushels per year.
For a small , the rate of consumption is constant.
t A
The amount consumed during that short time is .
( )
C t t A

Example 5:
National Potato Consumption
( )
2.2 1.1
t
C t = +
The amount consumed during that short time is .
( )
C t t A
We add up all these small amounts to get the
total consumption:
( )
total consumption C t dt =
}
4
2
2.2 1.1
t
dt +
}
4
2
1
2.2 1.1
ln1.1
t
t = +
From the beginning of 1972 to the end of
1973:
7.066 ~
million
bushels

Work:
work force distance =
Calculating the work is easy when the force
and distance are constant.
When the amount of force varies, we get to
use calculus!

Hookes law for springs:

F kx =
x = distance that the
spring is extended
beyond its natural length
k = spring
constant

Hookes law for springs:

F kx =
Example 7:
It takes 10 Newtons to stretch a spring 2 meters
beyond its natural length.
F=10 N
x=2 M
10 2 k =
5 k = 5 F x =
How much work is done stretching the spring to 4
meters beyond its natural length?

F(x)
x=4 M
How much work is done stretching the spring to 4
meters beyond its natural length?
For a very small change in x, the force is constant.
( )
dw F x dx =
5 dw x dx =
5 dw x dx =
} }
4
0
5 W x dx =
}
4
2
0
5
2
W x =
40 W =
newton-meters
40 W =
joules
( )
5 F x x =
t
7.2
Areas in the Plane
Gateway Arch, St. Louis, Missouri
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2003
2
1
2 y x =
2
y x =
How can we find the area between these
two curves?
We could split the area into several
sections, use subtraction and figure it
out, but there is an easier way.

2
1
2 y x =
2
y x =
Consider a very thin vertical strip.
The length of the strip is:
1 2
y y
or
( )
( )
2
2 x x
Since the width of the strip is a very small
change in x, we could call it dx.

2
1
2 y x =
2
y x =
1
y
2
y
1 2
y y
dx
Since the strip is a long thin rectangle, the area of
the strip is:
( )
2
length width 2 x x dx = +
If we add all the strips, we get:
2
2
1
2 x x dx

+
}

2
1
2 y x =
2
y x =
2
2
1
2 x x dx

+
}
2
3 2
1
1 1
2
3 2
x x x

+
8 1 1
4 2 2
3 3 2
| | | |
+ + +
| |
\ . \ .
8 1 1
6 2
3 3 2
+
36 16 12 2 3
6
+ 27
6
=
9
2
=

The formula for the area between curves is:

( ) ( )
1 2
Area
b
a
f x f x dx = (
}
Top Curve Bottom Curve

y x =
2 y x =
y x =
2 y x =
If we try vertical strips, we have to integrate
in two parts:
dx
dx
( )
2 4
0 2
2 x dx x x dx +
} }
We can find the same area using a
horizontal strip.
dy
Since the width of the strip is dy, we
find the length of the strip by solving for
x in terms of y.
y x =
2
y x =
2 y x =
2 y x + =

y x =
2 y x =
We can find the same area using a
horizontal strip.
dy
Since the width of the strip is dy, we
find the length of the strip by solving for
x in terms of y.
y x =
2
y x =
2 y x =
2 y x + =
( )
2
2
0
2 y y dy +
}
length of strip
width of strip
2
2 3
0
1 1
2
2 3
y y y +
8
2 4
3
+
10
3
=

General Strategy for Area Between Curves:

1
Decide on vertical or horizontal strips. (Pick whichever is easier to write
formulas for the length of the strip, and/or whichever will let you integrate
fewer times.)
Sketch the curves.
2
3 Write an expression for the area of the strip.
(If the width is dx, the length must be in terms of x.
If the width is dy, the length must be in terms of y.
4
Find the limits of integration. (If using dx, the limits are x values; if using dy,
the limits are y values.)
5 Integrate to find area.
t
7.3 Day One: Volumes by Slicing
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2001
Little Rock Central High School,
Little Rock, Arkansas
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2003
7.3 day 2
Disk and Washer Methods
Limerick Nuclear Generating Station, Pottstown, Pennsylvania
0
1
2
1 2 3 4
y x =
Suppose I start with this curve.
My boss at the ACME Rocket Company has
assigned me to build a nose cone in this
shape.
So I put a piece of wood in a lathe and turn
it to a shape to match the curve.

0
1
2
1 2 3 4
y x =
How could we find the volume of the cone?
One way would be to cut it into a series of thin
slices (flat cylinders) and add their volumes.
The volume of each flat cylinder (disk) is:
2
the thickness r t
In this case:
r= the y value of the function
thickness = a small change in x = dx
t
( )
2
x
dx

0
1
2
1 2 3 4
y x =
The volume of each flat cylinder (disk) is:
2
the thickness r t
If we add the volumes, we get:
( )
2
4
0
x dx t
}
4
0
x dx t =
}
4
2
0
2
x
t
=
8t =
t
( )
2
x
dx

The region between the curve , and the

y-axis is revolved about the y-axis. Find the volume.
1
x
y
= 1 4 y s s
0
1
2
3
4
1
y
x
1 1
2
3
4
1
.707
2
=
1
.577
3
=
1
2
We use a horizontal disk.
dy
The thickness is dy.
The radius is the x value of the function .
1
y
=
2
4
1
1
V dy
y
t
| |
=
|
|
\ .
}
volume of disk
4
1
1
dy
y
t =
}
4
1
ln y t =
( )
ln4 ln1 t =
0
2
ln2 t =
2 ln2 t =

Notice how the

bounds of
integration
correspond to the y-
axis
This application of the method of slicing is called the disk method. The shape
of the slice is a disk, so we use the formula for the area of a circle to find the
volume of the disk.
If the shape is rotated about the x-axis (horizontal), then the formula is:
V =

[ ]

2

A shape rotated about the y-axis (veritcal)would be:
V =

[ ]

The natural draft cooling tower shown at left

is about 500 feet high and its shape can be
approximated by the graph of this equation
revolved about the y-axis:
2
.000574 .439 185 x y y = +
x
y
500 ft
( )
500 2
2
0
.000574 .439 185 y y dy t +
}
The volume can be calculated using the disk method with a horizontal disk.
3
24, 700, 000 ft ~

0
1
2
3
4
1 2
The region bounded by
and is revolved about
the y-axis.
Find the volume.
2
y x =
2 y x =
The disk now has a hole in it, making it
a washer.
If we use a horizontal slice:
(means equations must be in terms of y)
The volume of the washer is:
( )
2 2
thickness R r t t
( )
2 2
R r dy t
outer
radius
inner
radius
2 y x =
2
y
x =
2
y x =
y x =
2
y x =
2 y x =
( )
2
2
4
0
2
y
V y dy t
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
}
4
2
0
1
4
V y y dy t
| |
=
|
\ .
}
4
2
0
1

4
V y y dy t =
}
4
2 3
0
1 1
2 12
y y t
(
=
(

16
8
3
t
(
=
(

8
3
t
=

0
1
2
3
4
1 2
The region bounded by
and is revolved about
the x-axis.
Find the volume.
2
y x =
2 y x =
The disk now has a hole in it, making it
a washer.
If we use vertical slice:
(means equations must be in terms of x)
The volume of the washer is:
( )
2 2
thickness R r t t
( )
2 2
R r dy t
outer
radius
inner
radius
2 y x =
2
y x =
2
y x =
2 y x =

[(2)
2
(
2
)
2
]
2
0

x
This application of the method of slicing is called the washer method. The
shape of the slice is a circle with a hole in it, so we subtract the area of the
inner circle from the area of the outer circle.
The washer method formula is:
2 2

b
a
V R r dx t =
}

0
1
2
3
4
1 2
2 y x =
If the same region is rotated about
the line x=2:
2
y x =
The outer radius is:
2
2
y
R =
R
The inner radius is:
2 r y =
r
2 y x =
2
y
x =
2
y x =
y x =
4
2 2
0
V R r dy t =
}
( )
2
2
4
0
2 2
2
y
y dy t
| |
=
|
\ .
}
( )
2
4
0
4 2 4 4
4
y
y y y dy t
| |
= + +
|
\ .
}
2
4
0
4 2 4 4
4
y
y y y dy t = + +
}
1
4
2
2
0
1
3 4
4
y y y dy t = + +
}
4
3
2 3
2
0
3 1 8
2 12 3
y y y t
(
= + +
(

16 64
24
3 3
t
(
= + +
(

8
3
t
=
t
0
1
2
3
4
1 2
2 y x =
If the same region is rotated about
the line x= -2:
2
y x =
The outer radius is:
The inner radius is:
2 y x =
2
y
x =
2
y x =
y x =
t
2 +
2 +

2

[(2 + )
2
(2 +

2
)
2
]
4
0

0
1
2
3
4
1 2
2 y x =
If the same region is rotated about
the line x=2:
2
y x =
R
r
2 y x =
2
y
x =
2
y x =
y x =
t
1. Figure out if you are
rotating horizontally
(equation in terms of x) or
vertically (equation in
terms of y)
2. If using the washer
method figure out the
inter and outer radius.
3. Figure out the limits of
integration (where the
curves meet), if not given,
for the y or x coord.
4. Add to function (if rotated
around a negative) or
subtract the function from
(if rotated around a
positive), if not rotated
around an axis.
( )
2
2
4
0
2 2
2
y
y dy t
| |
=
|
\ .
}
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2006
7.3 day 3
The Shell Method
Japanese Spider Crab
Georgia Aquarium, Atlanta
Grows to over 12 feet wide
and lives 100 years.
Write an equation of a tangent line to the
equation f(x) = 2
3
+ 2 at x = 1.
What three things do we need to write the
equation of a line?
Slope, x and y coordinate.
f(x) = 6
2
f(1) = 6(1)
2
f(1) = 6
Find the y-coordinate
f(1) = 2(1)
3
+ 2 = 4
Y 4 = 6(x 1)
Find the slope
AP Review
The base of a solid is formed
by the function f(x) =
2
from
0 to 1. The solid is formed by
squares, which are
perpendicular to the x-axis.
What is the volume of this
solid?
Can you draw this?
I have a sum of infinite number of squares
that form this solid.
What is the equation of a square? =
2

What is the side length in each square? s=
2

How do we add up all the squares?
(
2
)
2

1
0

The base of a solid is formed
by the function f(x) =
2
from
0 to 1. The solid is formed by
semi-circles, which are
perpendicular to the x-axis.
What is the volume of this
solid?
Can you draw this?
I have a sum of infinite number of semi-circles
that form this solid.
What is the equation of a semi-circle?
=
1
2

2

What is the radius of each circle?
r =
1
2

2

How do we add up all the circles?

1
2
(
1
2

2
)
2

1
0

=

1
8

4

1
0

Area of a equilateral triangle: =
3
4
()
2

Area of a rectangle: =
Method of Slicing:
1
Find a formula for the particular shape (square, rectangle, circle, semi-circle,
triangle..)
Use the original function and plug it into the area formula for you shape.
Sketch the solid and a typical cross section.
2
3 Find the limits of integration.
4
Integrate V(x) to find volume.

3
3
3
Find the volume of the pyramid:
Consider a horizontal slice through the pyramid.
s
dh
The volume of the slice is s
2
dh.
If we put zero at the top of the pyramid and make
down the positive direction, then s=h.
0
3
h
2
slice
V h dh =
3
2
0
V h dh =
}
3
3
0
1
3
h = 9 =
This correlates with the formula:
1
3
V Bh =
1
9 3
3
=
9 =

x
y
A 45
o
wedge is cut from a cylinder of radius 3 as shown.
Find the volume of the wedge.
You could slice this wedge shape
several ways, but the simplest cross
section is a rectangle.
If we let h equal the height of the slice then the volume of the slice is:
( )
2 V x y h dx =
Since the wedge is cut at a 45
o
angle:
x
h
45
o h x =
Since
2 2
9 x y + =
2
9 y x =

x
y
( )
2 V x y h dx =
h x =
2
9 y x =
( )
2
2 9 V x x x dx =
3
2
0
2 9 V x x dx =
}
2
9 u x =
2 du x dx =
( )
0 9 u =
( )
3 0 u =
1
0
2
9
V u du =
}
9
3
2
0
2
3
u =
2
27
3
=
18 =
Even though we started with
a cylinder, t does not enter
the calculation!

Cavalieris Theorem:
Two solids with equal altitudes and identical parallel cross sections have the same
volume.
Identical Cross Sections
t
6.1 day 1: Antiderivatives
and Slope Fields
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington
First, a little review:
Consider:
2
3 y x = +
then:
2 y x
'
= 2 y x
'
=
2
5 y x =
or
It doesnt matter whether the constant was 3 or -5, since when we take the
derivative the constant disappears.
However, when we try to reverse the operation:
Given:
2 y x
'
=
find
y
2
y x C = +
We dont know what the constant is, so we
put C in the answer to remind us that
there might have been a constant.

If we have some more information we can find C.

Given: and when , find the equation for .
2 y x
'
= y 4 y = 1 x =
2
y x C = +
2
4 1 C = +
3 C =
2
3 y x = +
This is called an initial value problem. We need the
initial values to find the constant.
An equation containing a derivative is called a differential equation. It becomes an
initial value problem when you are given the initial condition and asked to find the
original equation.

Initial value problems and differential equations can be illustrated with a slope field.
Slope fields are mostly used as a learning tool and are mostly done on a computer or
graphing calculator, but a recent AP test asked students to draw a simple one by hand.

Draw a segment with

slope of 2.
Draw a segment with
slope of 0.
Draw a segment
with slope of 4.
2 y x
'
=
x
y
y
'
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0
0 0
2
3
1 0
2
1 1 2
2 0 4
-1
0
-2
-2
0 -4

2 y x
'
=
If you know an initial condition, such as
(1,-2), you can sketch the curve.
By following the slope field, you get a rough
picture of what the curve looks like.
In this case, it is a parabola.

Differentiate the following equation

2
+ = 3
5

We are going to integrate equations
that are in terms of both x and y.
If

=
4

and y(0) = 5, find an

equation for y in terms of x.
1. Separate the variables
2. Integrate both sides
4. Solve for C
3. Solve for y
If

= 3
2
y and y(0) = 2, find an
equation for y in terms of x.
1. Separate the variables
2. Integrate both sides
4. Solve for C
3. Solve for y
Integrals such as are called definite integrals because we can find a
definite value for the answer.
4
2
1
x dx
}
4
2
1
x dx
}
4
3
1
1
3
x C +
3 3
1 1
4 1
3 3
C C
| | | |

| |
\ \
+ +
. .
64 1
3 3
C C +
63
3
= 21 =
The constant always cancels when finding
a definite integral, so we leave it out!
Integrals such as are called indefinite integrals because we can not find a
definite value for the answer.
2
x dx
}
2
x dx
}
3
1
3
x C +
When finding indefinite integrals,
we always include the plus C.

Many of the integral formulas are listed on page 307. The first ones that we will be
using are just the derivative formulas in reverse.
On page 308, the book shows a technique to graph the integral of a function using the
numerical integration function of the calculator (NINT).
( )
1 NINT sin , , 0, y x x x x =
or
0
sin
x
y t t dt =
}
This is extremely slow and usually not worth the trouble.
A better way is to use the calculator to find the indefinite integral and plot the
resulting expression.

To find the indefinite integral on the TI-89, use:

( )
sin , x x x -
}
The calculator will return:
( ) ( )
sin cos x x x
Notice that it leaves out the +C.

Use and to put this expression

in the screen, and then plot the graph.
COPY PASTE
Y=
[-10,10] by [-10,10]
t
6.4 Exponential Growth
and Decay
Greg Kelly, Hanford High School, Richland, Washington
Glacier National Park, Montana
Photo by Vickie Kelly, 2004
The number of bighorn sheep in a population increases at a rate that is proportional
to the number of sheep present (at least for awhile.)
So does any population of living creatures. Other things that increase or decrease at
a rate proportional to the amount present include radioactive material and money in
an interest-bearing account.
If the rate of change is proportional to the amount present, the change can be
modeled by:
dy
ky
dt
=

dy
ky
dt
=
1
dy k dt
y
=
1
dy k dt
y
=
} }
ln y kt C = +
Rate of change is proportional to the amount
present.
Divide both sides by y.
Integrate both sides.

1
dy k dt
y
=
} }
ln y kt C = +
Integrate both sides.
Exponentiate both sides.
When multiplying like bases, add exponents. So
added exponents can be written as multiplication.
ln y
kt C
e e
+
=
C kt
y e e =

ln y
kt C
e e
+
=
C kt
y e e =
Exponentiate both sides.
When multiplying like bases, add exponents. So
added exponents can be written as multiplication.
C kt
y e e =
kt
y Ae =
Since is a constant, let .
C
e
C
e A =

C kt
y e e =
kt
y Ae =
Since is a constant, let .
C
e
C
e A =
At , .
0 t =
0
y y =
0
0
k
y Ae

=
0
y A =
1
0
kt
y y e =
This is the solution to our original initial value problem.

0
kt
y y e =
Exponential Change:
If the constant k is positive then the equation represents growth. If k is
negative then the equation represents decay.
Note: This lecture will talk about exponential change formulas and where they
come from. The problems in this section of the book mostly involve using those
formulas. There are good examples in the book, which I will not repeat here.

Continuously Compounded Interest

If money is invested in a fixed-interest account where the interest is added to the
account k times per year, the amount present after t years is:
( )
0
1
kt
r
A t A
k
| |
= +
|
\ .
If the money is added back more frequently, you will make a little more money.
The best you can do is if the interest is added
continuously.

Of course, the bank does not employ some clerk to continuously calculate your interest
with an adding machine.
We could calculate:
0
lim 1
kt
k
r
A
k

| |
+
|
\ .
but we wont learn how to find this limit until chapter 8.
Since the interest is proportional to the amount present, the equation becomes:
Continuously Compounded Interest:
0
rt
A A e =
You may also use:
rt
A Pe =
which is the same thing.
(The TI-89 can do it now if you would like to try it.)

Radioactive Decay
The equation for the amount of a radioactive
element left after time t is:
0
kt
y y e

=
This allows the decay constant, k, to be positive.
The half-life is the time required for half the material to decay.

Half-life
0 0
1
2
kt
y y e

=
( )
1
ln ln
2
kt
e

| |
=
|
\ .
ln1 ln2 kt =
0
ln2 kt =
ln 2
t
k
=
Half-life:
ln 2
half-life
k
=

Newtons Law of Cooling

Espresso left in a cup will cool to the temperature of the surrounding air. The rate
of cooling is proportional to the difference in temperature between the liquid and
the air.
(It is assumed that the air temperature is constant.)
If we solve the differential equation:
| |
s
dT
k T T
dt
=
we get:
Newtons Law of Cooling
| |
0
kt
s s
T T T T e

=
where is the temperature of the
surrounding medium, which is a constant.
s
T
t
Find the volume of the region bounded by
, , and revolved about the y-axis.
2
1 y x = +
2 x =
0 y =
0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2
2
1 y x = +
We can use the washer method if we split it into two parts:
( )
2
5
2 2
1
2 1 2 1 y dy t t +
}
2
1 y x = 1 x y =
outer
radius
inner
radius
thickness
of slice
cylinder
( )
5
1
4 1 4 y dy t t +
}
5
1
5 4 y dy t t +
}
5
2
1
1
5 4
2
y y t t
(
+
(

25 1
25 5 4
2 2
t t
(
| | | |
+
| |
(
\ . \ .

25 9
4
2 2
t t
(
+
(

16
4
2
t t +
8 4 t t + 12t =

Japanese Spider Crab

Georgia Aquarium, Atlanta
0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2
If we take a vertical slice and revolve it about the y-axis
we get a cylinder.
cross section
If we add all of the cylinders together, we can reconstruct the original object.
2
1 y x = +
Here is another way we
could approach this
problem:

0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2
cross section
The volume of a thin, hollow cylinder is given by:
Lateral surface area of cylinder thickness
=2 thickness r h t r is the x value of the function.
circumference height thickness =
h is the y value of the function.
thickness is dx.
( )
2
=2 1 x x dx t +
r
h
thickness
circumference
2
1 y x = +

0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2
cross section
=2 thickness r h t
( )
2
=2 1 x x dx t +
r
h
thickness
circumference
If we add all the cylinders from the smallest to the
largest:
( )
2
2
0
2 1 x x dx t +
}
2
3
0
2 x x dx t +
}
2
4 2
0
1 1
2
4 2
x x t
(
+
(

| |
2 4 2 t +
12t
This is called the shell
method because we use
cylindrical shells.
2
1 y x = +

0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
( )
2
4
10 16
9
y x x = +
Find the volume generated when this shape
is revolved about the y axis.
We cant solve for x, so we
cant use a horizontal slice
directly.

0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
( )
2
4
10 16
9
y x x = +
Shell method:
Lateral surface area of cylinder
=circumference height
=2 r h t
Volume of thin cylinder 2 r h dx t =
If we take a vertical slice
and revolve it about the
y-axis
we get a cylinder.

0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
( )
2
4
10 16
9
y x x = + Volume of thin cylinder 2 r h dx t =
( )
8
2
2
4
2 10 16
9
x x x dx t
(
+
(

}
r
h
thickness
160t =
3
502.655 cm ~
Note: When entering this into the calculator, be sure to enter the multiplication
symbol before the parenthesis.
circumference

When the strip is parallel to the axis of rotation, use the shell method.
When the strip is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, use the washer method.
t