Course 8

Control of wind turbines-part 2

Induction generators with dynamic slip control

Induction generators with wire or bar windings in the
rotor usually permit intervention via the slip rings.
Wind turbines are, however, subject to random and
periodic output fluctuations due to wind-speed
fluctuations, tower-shadowing effects, natural
resonances of components, etc. In a fixed-speed
connection of the generator to the grid, these are
passed on to the grid at almost their full level via the
drive train and the generator coil.
Large slip values significantly reduce the load on the
drive train and greatly reduce output fluctuations.
If the slip energy is not recovered high losses
in the rotor circuit are the result. To achieve a
high total efficiency, the rotor slip should be
kept as low as possible.
A favourable conversion system should
therefore combine the two seemingly
contradictory options of :
low slip energy losses and
high dynamic speed and slip flexibility.
Slip-ring rotor induction machines and systems
based upon the same operating principle
permit three operating methods, as shown in
figure 8.1:

k
s
Integral
controller
P
ref
P
meas
R+dR
1 2
R
rot
d
Dynamic slip control:

Example: A 2 MW wind turbine
based on rotor resistance control
(Optislip):
A slip of 5% will result in
a rotor power of 95 kW (losses)
In the case of a short-circuited rotor winding, the generator
operates at the lowest slip and thus achieves the best
machine efficiency. However, this results in high drive-train
loading and large output fluctuations.

By connecting resistors in the three phases of the rotor circuit,
high slip values and thus high elasticity of speed can be
achieved if the resistors are correctly dimensioned, with
increased slip bringing about better dynamic characteristics
but poorer efficiency.

With a continuous adjustment of slip to the prevailing wind and
grid conditions, a rapid change of rotor circuit resistance aided
by alternating switching processes between shortcircuited
rotor winding and full resistance in the rotor circuit can bring
about output smoothed or efficient operating ranges. Thus, in
the part-load range, low slip values can be set and adjusted
slightly in order to achieve a high level of efficiency.
Torque fluctuations arising from the drive train
can be largely smoothed out in this manner. If
the wind supply is above the level required to
produce nominal output, large losses due to
increased slip can be accepted without
sacrificing energy yield.
Thus the advantages of torque-and output-
smoothing characteristics can be combined
with adequate speed-regulation reserves.
Figure 8.2 Dynamic slip regulation of wind turbines with slip-ring rotor asynchronous machines for
(a) a rotor circuit with a rectifier bridge and single-phase pulsing at the additional resistor
Fig. 8.3. Dynamic slip regulation of wind turbines with slip-ring rotor asynchronous machines for
(b) a rotor circuit with three-phase pulsing of the additional resistor
Figure 8.3 shows the conventional concept for wind
turbines with slip control, based upon the industry
standard robust induction generator with a slip-ring
rotor. Using this system it is possible to design the
rotor circuit with a rectifier bridge and single-phase
pulsing (e.g. using IGBT) at the additional resistor or
to design the rotor system with additional resistors
and pulsing in all three phases.
The additional rotor resistors and the slip regulation
and its drive are generally fitted as a separate unit
outside the generator. Moreover, the subsystem can
be designed as a modular unit.
The simple single-phase design, as shown in Figure
8.3 (a), tends to cause mechanical vibrations in the
drive train. These disadvantages can be avoided by a
symmetrical system with a three phase rotor circuit
design, as shown in fig. 8.3 (b).
By a combination of the two variants, the
design shown in figure 8.4 with a three-phase
resistor and single-phase pulsing can be used
to build a relatively simple system which can
achieve good operating results at a reasonable
cost.
Unlike the single-phase system in figure 8.3
(a), this configuration does not cause
mechanical vibrations in the drive train.
However, due to the lack of a resistor in
parallel with the 'IGBT switch' an additional
protective circuit is required to protect against
the overvoltage that is created in the direct
current circuit due to current pulsing.
An annual running time of approximately 8000 hours
must be assumed for generators in wind turbines.
Components, particularly the slip-ring transmission
system, are subject to wear.
Brushless designs -normal in synchronous machines
-are also desirable in asynchronous machines.
It is necessary to make a fundamental differention
between brushless inductive transmission of the
rotor-slip energy by secondary windings (figure
8.6(a)) and the complete redesign of the power
section with additional resistors, power electronics
and regulation in the rotating part of the generator
(fig. 8.6(b)), as in the OptiSlip regulation system in
the Vestas V 44 (600 kW) to V 66 (1.65 MW) and the
V80/90 (2 or 3MW).
Fig. 8.6. Dynamic slip regulation of wind turbines using induction machines
without slip-ring systems with (a) slip energy transmission by secondary windings
Figure 8.6 Dynamic slip regulation of wind turbines using asynchronous machines without slip-ring systems with
(b) power section and regulation in the rotor (Vestas)
The generators specifically designed for the
OptiSlip system are fitted with a wound rotor and an
integrated current regulation system in the rotor
(RCC =rotor current controller).
This is installed at the rear of the generator on the
end of the shaft, and consists of additional resistors,
power electronics, current sensors and a
microprocessor controller. The communications
signals between the management system (VMP =
Vestas multi-processor) and the current-regulation
device are carried via a maintenance-free fibre-optic
cable.
Figure 8.7 shows the block diagram for the dynamic
slip regulation system of an induction machine.
Once the generator has been connected to the grid,
the wind turbine can be operated at part load (i.e.
below nominal output) at a constant blade pitch or, as
in the Vestas design, brought into the optimal range
according to the prevailing wind speed. Thus, with
the aid of this so-called OptiSlip function, the
greatest possible energy yield can be achieved at
part load.
Generator output is adapted to the momentary
operating state (part or full load) with the aid of slip by
means of current regulation, pulse-width modulation
and the power controller in the rotor. Thus, low slip
values (e.g. 2 %) can be set in the part-load range
and high slip values (e.g. 5 %) can be set at nominal
operation, so that the generator speed can be varied
to smooth output power and drive-train torque.
Generalized Power Electronics and Control

The most generalized form of power electronics
topology for the wind energy application is the back-
to-back rectifier/inverter connection which provides
the improved power flow control as well as increased
efficiency.
The voltage-fed converter scheme used in such
systems is shown in fig. 8.8. A PWM-based IGBT
bridge rectifies the variable-frequency variable-
voltage power from the wind generator. The rectifier
also supplies the excitation needs for the induction
generator. The inverter topology is identical to that of
the rectifier, and it supplies the generated power at
50 Hz to the utility grid.
This general structure is suitable for any type of wind energy systems.
Based on the control design for the back-to-back PWM converter system,
various advantages can be obtained:

The line-side power factor is unity with no harmonic current injection;

Wind generator output current is sinusoidal;

There are no harmonic copper losses;

The rectifier can generate programmable excitation for the induction
generator based system;

Continuous power generation from zero to the highest turbine speed is
possible;

Power can flow in either direction, permitting the generator to run as a
motor for start-up (required for vertical turbine). Similarly, regenerative
braking can quickly stop the turbine; and

Islanded operation of the system is possible with a start-up capacitor
charging the battery.

Figure 8.9 shows the control block diagram of an
induction generator with a double PWM converter-fed
wind energy system that uses the power circuit
shown in Figure 8.8.
The induction generator and inverter output currents
are sinusoidal due to the high frequency of the pulse-
width modulation and current control as shown in the
figure.
The induction generator absorbs the lagging reactive
current, but the reactive current is always zero on the
line side; that is, the line power factor is unity.
The rectifier uses indirect vector control in the inner
current control loop.
The direct vector control method is used for the
inverter current controller.
For a particular wind velocity (Vw), there is an optimum setting
of generator speed (*r).
The speed loop control generates the torque component of
induction generator current, balancing the developed torque
with the load torque.
The variable-voltage variable-frequency power from the super-
synchronous induction generator is rectified and pumped to
the DC-link.
The DC-link voltage controller regulates the line power Po
(i.e., the line active current) so that the link voltage always
remains constant.
As the power starts to flow to the line side, the DC-link voltage
loop control can be gradually commanded to a higher value
than the peak value of the line-side voltage (typically, 75%
higher). After the DC-link voltage is established at its new
higher value, the system is ready to be controlled by
controllers C1 and C2.
Vector control permits fast transient response of the
system.
Intelligent controls, such as a fuzzy-logic-based
vector control, can be used to enhance three
important characteristics in this system: 1) adaptive
searching of the best generator speed command to
track the maximum extractable power from the wind
(by controller C1); 2) improving the generator
efficiency by reducing generator rotor flux when the
optimum generator speed set-up is attained in
steady-state (by controller C2); and 3) robust control
of the speed loop to overcome possible shaft
resonances due to wind gusts and vortex (by
controller C3).
Control of IG with full-scale power converter (Grid-side) :
Control of IG with full-scale power converter (generator-
side)

- Direct torque control
Wind Turbine technology steadily more efficient, key-drivers
Turbine cost
Maintenance
Availability/reliability
Energy production

Power electronics now a key technology

WT technology is changing from fixed to variable speed:
Better performance to the grid (control active and reactive power)
Less mechanical stress
Better use of the energy in the wind

Today no de-facto standard for variable speed wind turbines

At least 6 manufacturers produce variable speed wind turbines

Most used topology is DFIG and back-to-back two-level converter

Conclusions
Conclusions

Slip control modified with the use of a converter

Induction generator, doubly-fed and synchronous
generators are controlled in view of the active/reactive
power produced by the WT

System control manages the coordination between
mechanical control (mainly based on pitch) and
generator/grid control.