IITM-WPW-VKA 1

Signal Detection and Processing Techniques for

Atmospheric Radars
Dr. V.K. Anandan
National MST Radar Facility
Department of Space
Gadanki - India
IITM-WPW-VKA 2
The essence of frequency analysis is the representation of a signal
as superposition of sinusoidal components.
In practical applications, where only a finite length of data is
available, we cannot obtain a complete description of the adopted
signal model.
Therefore, an approximation (estimate) of the spectrum of the
adopted signal model is computed.
The quality of the estimate depends on
How well the assumed signal model represents the data.
What values we assign to the unavailable signal samples.
Which spectrum estimation method we use.
Clearly, a meaningful application of spectrum estimation to
practical problems requires sufficient apriori information,
understanding of the signal generation process, knowledge of
theoretical concepts, and experience.

IITM-WPW-VKA 3
Signal Detectability and Pulse Compression
The efficiency of the radar system depends on how best it can identify the echoes in
the presence of noise and unwanted clutter.

The important parameters from the system point of view influence the radar
returns are the average power of transmission and the antenna aperture size.

Signal detectability is a measure of the radar performance in terms of transmission
parameters.






IITM-WPW-VKA 4
Received signal power P
sig
to the uncertainty oP
n
in the estimate of the noise power
after averaging







A
e
effective antenna area P
t
peak power transmitted
t pulse length, PRF pulse repetition frequency
P
ave
= P
t
tPRF average Tx power B
rec
receiver band-width
T
s
effective system noise temp. N
c
No. of samples coherently added
N
inc
number of resulting sums which are incoherently averaged
t
c
~ 1/B
sig
correlation time of the scattering medium for the wavelength used
At total integration time h range or height
Ah height resolution.

2 1 1 2
2 1
2 1
2
/
/
/
) )( (
) )( (
sig
ave s e
c
c
rec s
h
t e
inc
c
rec s
sig
n
sig
B
t
h P T h A
t
PRF
B T
P A
N N
B T
P
P
P
A
A ~
t
A
t ~
~
o

t
IITM-WPW-VKA 5
Average power is the important parameter for the strong returns and this is function of
pulse length.
Short pulses are required for good range resolution, and the shorter length of Inter pulse
period (IPP) generates the problem of range ambiguity.
(Therefore maximum limit on the PRF is restricted due to the above problems)

Pulse compression and frequency stepping are techniques which allow more of the
transmitter average power capacity to be used without sacrificing range resolution.
A pulse of power P and duration t is in a certain sense converted into one of power nP
and duration t/n.
In the frequency domain compression involves manipulating the phases of the different
frequency components of the pulse.

In the time domain a pulse can be compressed via phase coding, especially binary phase
coding, a technique which is particularly amenable to digital processing techniques.
Since frequency is just the time derivative of phase, either can be manipulated to
produce compression.
Phase coding has been used extensively in atmospheric radars and in commercial &
military applications.
IITM-WPW-VKA 6
Pulse compression
Barker codes
These were first discussed by
Barker (1953) and have been
used in Ionospheric
incoherent scatter
measurements.

The distinguishing feature of
these codes is that, the range
side-lobes have a uniform
amplitude of unity.

The compression process
only works, if the correlation
time of the scattering
medium is substantially
longer than the full-
uncompressed length of the
transmitted pulse
+1
-1
+ + +
- -
+
-
Phase coded waveform
.
Binary phase coded signal
14 t
ACF
IITM-WPW-VKA 7
Complementary code pairs
Barker codes have range side lobes
which are small, but which may still
cause problems in MST applications.
Ideally a codes which supports high
compression ratios (long codes) to get the
possible altitude resolution.
Complementary phase codes are binary
in their simplest form and they usually
come in pairs.
They are coded exactly as Barker codes,
by a matched filter whose impulse
response is the time reverse of the pulse.
The range side lobes of the resulting
ACF output for each pulse will generally
be larger for a barker code of
comparable length.
when the two pulses are
complementary pair have the property
that their side lobes are equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign, so that
when outputs are added the side lobes
exactly cancel, leaving only the central
peak.
+ + + - + + - + + + + - - - + -
EDE2

ACF of pulse 1
16
8
+ + + - + + - + - - - + + + + - +
ED1D

ACF of pulse 1
32t
32t
32
16
0
Sum of ACFs
16
8
-8
-8
IITM-WPW-VKA 8
C(31)
C(30) C(0) C(1)
Z
-1

Z
-1

Output
Input
IMS A100 Modified transversal filter architecture
Decoding
IITM-WPW-VKA 9
Decoder
(I&Q)
Coherent
Integrator

Normalization

Windowing
Fourier Analysis
&
Power Spectrum
Incoherent
Averaging
Spectrum
Cleaning
Noise level
Estimation
Moments UVW
Processing steps for extraction of parameters
Q-Channel
I-Channel
Power Spectrum
Time Series
Zonal, Meridional, Vertical
wind velocity
Total Power, Mean Doppler, Doppler Width
Signal Processor On-line/Off-line Processing
Off-line Processing
Signal and Data Processing
IITM-WPW-VKA 10
Coherent Integration
The detected quadrature signals are coherently integrated for many pulse returns
which lead to an appreciable reduction in the volume of the data to be processed
and an improvement in the SNR.

The coherent integration is made possible because of the over sampling of the
Doppler signal resulting from the high PRF relative to the Doppler frequency.

In other words, the coherence time of the scattering process t
c
is much greater than
the sampling interval given by the inter pulse period t
p
.

The operation of coherent integration amounts to applying a low pass filter, whose
time-domain representation is a rectangular window of T
i
duration.

The signal spectrum is weighted by that of the integration filter sin
2
x/x
2
, where x =
tfT
i
and f is the Doppler shift in Hz.

The sampling operation at the integration time interval of T
i
leads to frequency
aliasing with signal power at frequencies f (m/T
i
), where m is any integer, added
to that at f.
IITM-WPW-VKA 11
In the case of a flat spectrum, the filtering and aliasing balance each other and
white noise still looks white, with no tapering at window edges.

On the other hand, a signal peak with Doppler shift of 0.44/T
i
Hz, near the edge of
the aliasing window, will be attenuated by 3 dB by the filter function, whereas a
peak near the center of the spectrum will be almost unaffected.

One should, therefore, be conservative in choosing N
i
for coherent integration so as
to ensure that all signals of interest are in the central portion of the post-
integration spectrum.

The objective is to measure a signal x(n) of duration of N samples, n = 0,1, . . . . N-1.
The measurement can be performed repeatedly. A total of M such measurements
are performed and the results are averaged by the signal averaging. Let the results
of the m
th
measurements, for m = 1,2, . . . M, are the samples.



where x(n) and v(n) corresponds to signal and noise respectively.


1 1 0 = v + = N n for n n x n y
m
,..., , ) ( ) ( ) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 12


Integrates (average) the results of the M measurements









The result of the averaging operation may be expressed as



Assuming v
m
(n) to be mutually uncorrelated; that is, E[ v
m
(n) v
l
(n) ] = o
v
2
o
ml,
The variance of the averaged noise



A/D Converter
Memory
y
m
(n)
y
m
(t)
) ( n x
m 1
) ( n x
m
) ( ) ( n x
M
n x
m
1
=
After measurements
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( n n x n n x
M
n y
M
n x
m
M
m
m
v
.
+ = v + = =

= = 1 1
1 1
) ( ) ( n
M
n where
M
m
m

=
v =
v
.
1
1
o o
= =
v
=
o

= =
.
v ml
M
o l m
v
M
l m
m
m
M
n v n v E
M
n
E
, ,
)] ( ) ( [ ]
) (
[
2
2
1
0
2
2
1 1
2
1 1 0
1
1
= =

=
N n for n y
M
n x
M
m
m
,....... , ) ( ) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 13




therefore signal to noise ratio (SNR) is improved by a factor of M.

To increase the SNR, the number of coherent integration should be
selected as large as possible within which the received signals are phase
coherent with each other.

There are two cases that make the integration time finite

1. movement of scatterers relative to each other within the radar sampling
volume.
2. the mean motion of scatterers relative to the radar due to background wind
fields.

The relative motion of scatterers is estimated by a correlation time, which is
defined as a half-power width of an auto correlation function of the received signal.


o
=
o
=
o
+
o
+
o
=
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1
v v v v v
M
M
M M
) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 14
It depends on the radar wavelength, antenna beamwidth and altitude.

Inverse of the coherent integration time corresponds to half of the
maximum frequency range of the Doppler spectra.

Therefore integration time should be so selected as to unambiguously
determine the maximum radial wind velocity.

This limits the length of coherent integration.

Normalization
The input data is to be normalized by applying a scaling factor corresponding to
the operation done on it.

This will reduce the chance of data overflowing due to any other succeeding
operation.


IITM-WPW-VKA 15
Normalization
The Normalization has following components.

a. sampling resolution of ADC
b. scaling due to pulse compression in decoder
c. scaling due to coherent integration
d. scaling due to number of FFT points.

if Av - ADC bit resolution ( 10/16384),
w - Pulse width in microsecond,
M -Number of IPP integrated = Integrated time /inter pulse period,
N - Number of FFT points,
then the Normalization factor

The complex time series { I
i
, Q
i
where i = 0, . . ,N-1} at the output of the signal
processor is scaled as

N M w
v
s
- -
A
=
i i
i i
Q s Q
I s I
- =
- =
~
~
IITM-WPW-VKA 16
Windowing
It is well known that the application of FFT to a finite length data gives rise to
leakage and picket fence effects.
-f
+f
Amp
f1
Cosine wave impulse
F(e)
W(e)
FT of Rectangular Window
-f
+f
F(e) * W(e)
f1
Leakage
Picket fence effect
0.6
Independent Filters
6 5 4
3 2 1 0
7
freq
Amp
1
0.4
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7
Power response
Power
Frequency
1
IITM-WPW-VKA 17
Weighting the data with suitable windows can reduce these effects.
However the use of the data windows other than the rectangular window affects the bias,
variance and frequency resolution of the spectral estimates.
In general variance of the estimate increases with the uses of a window. An estimate is
said to be consistent if the bias and the variance both tend to zero as the number of
observations is increased.
Thus, the problem associated with the spectral estimation of a finite length data by the
FFT techniques is the problem of establishing efficient data windows or data smoothing
schemes.
Characteristics of a window
It is desired that a window, f(t), has the following properties.
1. f(t) is real and non-negative.
2. f(t) is an even function, i.e., f(t) = f(-t).
3. f(t) should attain its maximum at t=0, i.e., | f(t) | < f(0) for all t.
4. Main lobe width should be as small as possible.
5. The Maximum sidelobe level should be as small as possible relative to the main lobe
peak.
6. The mainlobe should contain a large part of the total energy.
7. If the m
th
derivative of f(t) is impulsive, then the peak of the side-lobes of | F(e) |
decays asymptotically as 6m dB/octave.

IITM-WPW-VKA 18
Rectangular ( Box Car ) window
Window is defined by

and its Fourier transform

Bartlet Window
Window is defined by

and its Fourier transform



Hanning Window
Window is defined by
and its Fourier transform




Elsewhere
t t f
0
1
=
t s = ) (
e
et
= e
) sin(
) (
2
F
Elsewhere
t
t
t f
0
1
=
t s
t
= ) (
e
et
= e
2
2
4 ) (
sin
) ( F
Elsewhere
t
t
t f
0
5 0 5 0
=
t s
t
t
+ = cos . . ) (
(

t t e
t t t e
+
t t + e
t t t + e
+
e
et
= e
) sin( ) sin(
.
) sin(
) ( 5 0 F
IITM-WPW-VKA 19
Hamming Window
Window is defined by



and its Fourier transform



COS
3
Window
window is defined by



and its Fourier transform


Elsewhere
t t t f
0
46 0 54 0
=
t s t t + = ), cos( . . ) (
(

t t e
t t t e
+
t t + e
t t t + e
+
e
et
= e
) sin( ) sin(
.
) sin(
. ) ( 46 0 08 1 F
Elsewhere
t t t t f
0
2 3 25 0 2 75 0
=
t s t t + t t = ), ( cos . ) ( cos . ) (
(

t t t e
t t t e
+
t t t + e
t t t + e
+
(

t t e
t t e
+
t t + e
t t t + e
= e
) (
) ( sin
) (
) ( sin
.
) (
) ( sin
) (
) ( sin
. ) (
3
3
3
3
25 0
2
2
2
2
75 0 F
IITM-WPW-VKA 20
Blackman

Window
Window is defined by



and its Fourier transform is




Computation of window parameters
The important window parameters which are useful in selecting an appropriate window
for a particular application, which are

1. Variance compensation factor


2. Dispersion factor
Elsewhere
t t t t f
0
2 25 0 5 0 42 0
=
t s t t + t t + = ) ( cos . ) ( cos . . ) (
(

t t t e
t t t e
+
t t + e
t t t + e
+
(

t t t e
t t t e
+
t t + e
t t t + e
+
e
et
= e
) (
) ( sin
) (
) ( sin
.
) (
) ( sin
) (
) ( sin
.
) sin( .
) (
2
2
2
2
08 0
5 0
84 0
F
dt t f Q
}
t
t
t
= ) (
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
(
(

}
t
t
t
}
t
t
= q
dt t f
dt t f
) (
) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 21
3. Total energy

4. Major lobe energy contents (MLE).
5. Half power bandwidth (HPBW)
6. AW = major lobewidth/ major lobe width of rectangular window.
7. ABW = Half power bandwidth/ Half power bandwidth of rectangular window.
8. coherent gain

9. Rate of fall of sidelobe levels (RFSL).
10. Peak sidelobe level (PSLL).
11. Degradation loss L, is the reciprocal of the dispersion in dB.

}
t
t
= dt t f E ) (
2
dt t f G
}
t
t
t
= ) (
2
2
1
Data window q Q E MLE SLL W BW G L RFSL
(dB) (dB/Oct) ( % )


Rectangular 1.0 1.0 2.0 90.282 -13.26 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 -6

Hanning 1.50 0.375 0.75 99.9485 -31.48 2.0 1.63 0.5 -1.76 -6

Hamming 1.363 0.397 0.795 99.9632 -42.62 2.0 1.48 0.54 -1.34 -6

cosine
3
1.735 0.313 0.625 99.9925 -39.30 2.50 1.81 0.42 -2.39 -24

Bartlet 1.333 0.333 0.6667 99.7057 -26.53 2.0 1.40 0.5 -1.25 -12

Blackman 1.727 0.305 0.609 99.9989 -58.12 3.0 1.86 0.42 -2.37 -18

IITM-WPW-VKA 22
A window that yields

small values of variance compensation factor, dispersion factor, total
energy, peak sidelobe level, AW and ABW, and a large value of major lobe
energy content is desirable in spectral estimation via FFT.

However a decrease in peak sidelobe level is associated with an increase in
major lobewidth and, hence, a corresponding increase in the loss of
frequency resolution.

The energy of window is an important parameter since the variance of the
smoothed spectral estimate is proportional to E.

But the variance of the estimate is a measure of its reliability; smaller the
value, higher is the reliability of the estimate.

Thus, the selection of data window for spectral estimation is a judicious
compromise among the various parameters described above.
IITM-WPW-VKA 23
Weighting the data with suitable windows can reduce leakage.

Tapering is another name for the data windowing operation in the time
domain.

Single taper smoothed spectrum estimates are plagued by a trade-off
between the variance of the estimate and the bias caused by spectral
leakage.
Applying a taper to reduce bias discards data, increasing the variance
of the estimate.

Using a taper also unevenly samples the record. Single taper
estimators, which are less affected by leakage, not only have increased
variance but also can misrepresent the spectra of non-stationary data.

So as long as only a single data taper is used, there will be a trade-off
between the resistance to spectral leakage and the variance of a
spectral estimate.
IITM-WPW-VKA 24
Single taper spectral estimates have relatively large variance
(increasing as a large fraction of data is discarded and the bias of the
estimate is reduced) and are inconsistent estimates (i.e., the variance of
the estimate does not drop as one increases the number of data).

To counteract this, it is conventional to smooth the single taper spectral
estimate by applying a moving average to the estimate.

This reduces the variance of the estimate but results in a short - range
loss of frequency resolution and therefore an increase in the bias of the
estimate.

An estimate is to be consistent if the bias and the variance both tend to
zero as the number of observations is increased.

Thus, the problem associated with the spectral estimation of a finite
length data by the FFT techniques is the problem of establishing
efficient data windows or data smoothing schemes.
IITM-WPW-VKA 25
Multitaper spectral analysis technique find wider applications in the
signal analysis

First, the data are multiplied by not one, but several leakage - resistant
tapers. This yields several tapered time series from one record.

Taking the DFTs of each of these time series, several eigen spectra
are produced which are averaged to form a single spectral estimate.

There are a number of Multitapers that have been proposed.

Some of them are Slepian tapers, Discrete Prolate Spheroidal
sequences, Sinusoidal Tapers, etc,

The central premise of this multitaper approach is that if the data tapers
are properly designed orthogonal functions, then, under mild
conditions, the spectral estimates would be independent of each other
at every frequency.


IITM-WPW-VKA 26
Averaging would reduce the variance while proper design of full -
length windows would reduce bias and loss of resolution.

The pictorial description of the multitaper approach to power
spectrum estimation is as shown in Figure.

1 N
Periodogram
1 N
Taper 1
1 N
Taper 2

1 N
Taper M

1 N
Periodogram
1 N
Periodogram

A
V
E
R
A
G
E
R
1 N
Data Record
Final
Estimate
IITM-WPW-VKA 27
The multiple tapers are constructed so that each taper samples the time
series in a different manner while optimizing resistance to spectral
leakage.

The statistical information discarded by the first taper is partially
recovered by the second taper, the information discarded by the first
two tapers is partially retrieved by the third taper, and so on.

Only a few lower-order tapers are employed, as the higher - order
tapers allow an unacceptable level of spectral leakage.

One can use these tapers to produce an estimate that is not hampered
by the trade - off between leakage and variance that plagues single-
taper estimates.
IITM-WPW-VKA 28
Sinusoidal Multitaper

The continuous time minimum bias tapers are given as


and its Fourier Transform as





The discrete analogs of the continuous time minimum bias tapers are
called sinusoidal tapers. The n
th
sinusoidal taper is given by




1,2,...) (k ) sin( 2 ) ( = = t tkt t v
k
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
1
sin
1
2
) (
N
kn
N
n v
k
t
; n = 1,2,,N ; k=1,2,,K
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
t
t
e
t
t
e
t
t
e
t
t
e
e
k
k
k
k
j V
k
sin sin
2 ) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 29
Where the amplitude term on the right is normalization factor that ensures
orthonormality of the tapers.

These sine tapers have much narrower main-lobe and much higher side-
lobes.

Thus they achieve a smaller bias due to smoothing by the main lobe, but
at the expense of side-lobe suppression.

Clearly this performance is acceptable if the spectrum is varying slowly.

The k
th
sinusoidal taper has its spectral energy concentrated in the
frequency bands.

1
) 1 (
1
) 1 .(
+
+
s s
+

N
k
N
k t
e
t
k=1,2,..., K
IITM-WPW-VKA 30
Sinusoidal Multitaper
IITM-WPW-VKA 31
IITM-WPW-VKA 32
IITM-WPW-VKA 33
IITM-WPW-VKA 34
IITM-WPW-VKA 35
IITM-WPW-VKA 36
Fourier analysis
Spectral analysis is connected with characterizing the frequency content of a signal.
A large number of spectral analysis techniques are available in the literature. This
can be broadly classified in to non-parametric or Fourier analysis based method
and parametric or model based methods.
Fourier proposed that any finite duration signal, even a signal with discontinuities,
can be expressed as an infinite summation of harmonically related sinusoidal
component


FFT applied to complex time series {(I
i,
Q
i
), i = 0,1, . . . ,N-1} to obtain complex
frequency domain spectrum { (X
i,
Y
i
), i = 0, . . . . , N-1}


Power Spectrum
Power spectrum is calculated from the complex spectrum as

)) ( sin ) ( cos ( ) ( t k B t k A t x
k
k
k 0
0
0 O + O =

=
1 0 2
1
1
0
= t + = +

=
N i N ik jQ I
N
Y X
N
k
k k i i , ) / ( exp ) (
1 1 0
2 2
= + = N i Y X P
i i i
,......., , ,
IITM-WPW-VKA 37
IITM-WPW-VKA 38
IITM-WPW-VKA 39
Incoherent Integration ( Spectral averaging)
Incoherent integration is the averaging the power spectrum number of times.


where m is the number of spectra integrated.
The advantage of incoherent integration is that it improves the detectability of Doppler
spectrum. The detectability is defined as


where P
S
is peak spectral density of the signal spectrum, and o
S+N
is the standard
deviation of spectral densities.

When fluctuations of the signal spectral density is much smaller than that for noise, then


The noise spectral density has a _
2
distribution, because the noise spectral density
is a summation of square of real and imaginary components of amplitude spectrum
which are assumed to have Gaussian distribution.
1 0
1
1
=
=
= N i
m
k
P
ik
m
P
i
,
N S
S
P
D
+
o
=
N
P
s
D
o
=
IITM-WPW-VKA 40
The mean value and standard deviation o of the _
2
distribution becomes


For a single spectrum o
N
is equal to P
N
.

When Doppler spectra are averaged m times, the mean values of spectral densities of
both the signal and noise are not changed.

But o
N
/ P
N
becomes 1/\(m).

as m times integration of the noise produces a _
2
distribution and as a result D is
increased by \(m).

m and m = o =
IITM-WPW-VKA 41
IITM-WPW-VKA 42
Power spectrum cleaning
Due to various reasons the radar echoes may get corrupted by ground clutter,
system bias, interference, image formation etc..

The data is to be cleaned from these problems before going for analysis.








N/2 corresponds to zero frequency.
Spikes (glitches) in the time series will generate a constant amplitude band all over
the frequency bandwidth.
Constant frequency bands will form in the power spectrum by the interference
generated in the system or due to extraneous signal.

2
1
2
1
2
2

+
+
=
N
N
N
p
p
p
f
max
-f
max
0
IITM-WPW-VKA 43
Noise level estimation
There are many methods adapted to find out the noise level estimation.
Basically all methods are statistical approximation to the near values.
The method implemented here is based on the variance decided by a threshold criterion,
Hildebrand and Sekhon (1974).
This method makes use of the observed Doppler spectrum and of the physical
properties of white noise; it does not involve knowledge of the noise level of the
radar instrument system and is now widely used in atmospheric radar noise
threshold estimation and removal.





averaaged spectra of number over
S mean
S Variance
1
2
s
) (
) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 44
IITM-WPW-VKA 45
IITM-WPW-VKA 46
The noise level threshold shall be estimated to the maximum level L, such that the set of
Spectral points below the level S, nearly satisfies the criterion,
Step 1:
Reorder the spectrum { P
i,
i = 0, . . . N-1} in ascending order to form. Let this sequence
be written as{ A
i
, i = 0, . . . N-1} and A
i
< A
j
for i < j
Step 2: compute






Where M is the number of spectra that were averaged for obtaining the data.

Step 3:

=
+
=
n
i
i n
A
i
P
n
0
) (
n
i
P
n
i
n
A
Q
n
2
2
0
1

=
+
=
N n for
M
Q
P
R Q
n
if and
n
n
n
, , ,
)
,
(
1 0
2
=
-
= >
1
1
>
= =
R
k where
P
L level Noise
n
that such n
criterion above the meets n no if
k
.
min ) (
IITM-WPW-VKA 47
Moments Estimation
The extraction of zeroth, first and second moments is the key reason for on doing all the
signal processing and there by finding out the various atmospheric and turbulence
parameters in the region of radar sounding. The basic steps involved in the estimation of
moments, Woodman (1985) are given below.
Step 1.
Reorder the spectrum to its correct index of frequency (ie. -f
maximum
to +f
maximum
) in the
following manner.
Spectral index 0 1 N/2 N-1
ambiguous freq. -f
maximum
Zero freq. +f
maximum

Step 2:
Subtract noise level L from spectrum
Step 3:
i) Find the index l of the peak value in the spectrum,


ii) Find m, the lower Doppler point of index from the peak point.

iii) Find n the upper Doppler point of index from the peak point

1 0 1 = > N i all for P P ie i ,
~ ~
l i m all for p ie i s s > 0
~
n i l all for p ie i s s > 0
~
IITM-WPW-VKA 48
Step 4:
The moments are computed as



represents zeroth moment or Total Power in the Doppler spectrum.



represents the first moment or mean Doppler in Hz


represents the second moment or variance, a measure of dispersion from central
frequency.

=
=
n
m i
i P M i
~
) 0
) (
) (
~
)
N n IPP
i
f where f P
M
M ii
N
i
n
m i
i i
- -

= =

=
2
0
1
1
) (
~
)
1
2
0
2
1
M f
P
M
M iii
i
n
m i
i

=

=
dB
L N
M
SNR Ratio Noise to Signal v
(

-
=
) (
log ) ( )
0
10
Hz M ) full ( width Doppler ) iv 2 2 =
o
f
d
P

P

IITM-WPW-VKA 49

















Sample Doppler spectra for a few range gates showing 5 candidate-peaks per range gate that form
the basis for the adaptive technique of signal detection.
IITM-WPW-VKA 50



















(a) Height profiles of Doppler power spectra observed on 10 July 2002 using the 10
o
east radar
beam when the SNR is low. (b) Mean Doppler Velocity-Height profile extracted from the spectra
shown in (a) using the conventional peak detection method (dotted line) and the adaptive
moments extraction technique (solid line).
IITM-WPW-VKA 51



















Eight-profile average mean Doppler velocity-Height profiles and corresponding
standard deviations observed on July 10, 2002 when the SNR is low for (a) 10 deg
east radar beam using adaptive moments estimation technique and (b) 10 deg
east radar beam using conventional peak detection method.
IITM-WPW-VKA 52



















(a) Height profiles of Doppler power spectra observed 10 May 2002 using the 10o
east radar beam when the SNR is high. (b) Mean Doppler-Height profile extracted
from the spectra shown in (a) using the conventional peak detection method
(dotted line) and the adaptive moments extraction technique (solid line).
IITM-WPW-VKA 53



















Eight-profile average mean Doppler velocity-Height profiles and corresponding
standard deviations observed on 10 May 2002 for the (a) 10o east radar beam
using adaptive moments extraction technique and (c) 10o east radar beam using
conventional peak detection method.
IITM-WPW-VKA 54
Anandan et al., JAOT, 2004 (In Press)
IITM-WPW-VKA 55
UVW Computation
The prime objective of atmospheric radar is to obtain the vector wind
velocity.
Velocity measured by a radar with the Doppler technique is a line of sight
velocity, which is the projection of velocity vector in the radial direction.
There are two different techniques of determining the three components
of the velocity vector: the Doppler Beam Swinging (DBS) method and
Spaced Antenna (SA) method.
The DBS method uses a minimum of three radar beam orientations
(Vertical, East-West, and North-South) to derive the three components of
the wind vector (Vertical, Zonal and Meriodional)


IITM-WPW-VKA 56

IITM-WPW-VKA 57
Calculation of radial velocity and height:
For representing the observation results in physical parameters, the Doppler
frequency and range bin have to be expressed in terms of corresponding radial
velocity and vertical height.





E

u
T
u

w

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =
=
T
T rad
hor
T T rad
rad
w v
v
w v
v
u
u
u u
u
sin
cos
cos sin v
sin
v
hor
hor
meters
t c
R
u
u
sin
cos
H Height,
- -
= sec /
2 2
V Velocity, m
f
or
f
f c
D
c
D
-
-
-
=
IITM-WPW-VKA 58
Change in phase of the wave as a measure of velocity
2
2
4
2
4
)
2
( 2
) 2 ( 2 ) (
) 2 (
2
2 2 2
d
d
d
d
f
v or
v
f
v f
v
dt
dr
dt
d
r
t
r
way two g considerin
r
t
c
f t t

t
t

t
e

t

t

t

t

t t e
= =
=
=
=
=
=
= = = =
IITM-WPW-VKA 59
Computation of absolute Wind velocity vectors (UVW):

After computing the radial velocity for different beam positions, the absolute
velocity (UVW) can be calculated.

To compute the UVW, at least three non-coplanar beam radial velocity data is
required. If higher number of different beam data are available, then the
computation will give an optimum result in the least square method.

Line of sight component of the wind vector V (V
x
, V
Y
, V
z
) is

V
D
= V . i = V
x
cosu
x
+ V
y
cosu
y
+ V
z
cosu
z


where X, Y, and Z directions are aligned to East-West, North-South and Zenith
respectively.

IITM-WPW-VKA 60
Applying least square method, residual

c
2
= (V
x
cosu
x
+ V
y
cosu
y
+ V
z
cosu
z
- V
D i
)
2

where V
D i
= f
D i
* /2 and i represents the beam number

To satisfy the minimum residual

cc
2
/oV
k
= 0

k corresponding to X,Y, and Z leads to



(
(
(

u
u
u
-

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

u u u u u
u u u u u
u u u u u
=
(
(
(

Zi Di
Yi Di
Xi Di
i
Zi
i
Zi Yi
i
zi Xi
i
Zi Yi
i
Yi
i
Yi Xi
i
Zi Xi
i
Yi Xi
i
Xi
z
y
x
V
V
V
V
V
V
cos
cos
cos
cos
cos cos cos cos
cos cos
cos
cos cos
cos cos cos cos
cos
1
2
2
2
IITM-WPW-VKA 61
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
5
10
15
20
H
e
i
g
h
t
(
k
m
)
Zonal (m/s)
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

Meridional (m/s)
-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4
Vertical (m/s)
IITM-WPW-VKA 62
0 8 16 24 32 40
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
GPS
MST
H
e
i
g
h
t


(

k
m

)
Wind Speed ( m/s )
0 90 180 270 360
GPS
MST
Wind Direction
IITM-WPW-VKA 63
Cases of special interest
IITM-WPW-VKA 64
Cases of special interest
IITM-WPW-VKA 65
Cases of special interest
IITM-WPW-VKA 66
Cases of special interest
IITM-WPW-VKA 67
Cases of special interest
IITM-WPW-VKA 68









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