The Nature of Light

Newton, who had discovered the visible spectrum in 1666, held that light is
composed of tiny particles, or corpuscles, emitted by luminous bodies.
This could explain such features as light's ability to travel in straight lines
and reflect off surfaces.
mirror
n 16!", #hristiaan
$uygens observed that
an expanding sphere of
light behaves as if each
point on the wave front
were a new source of
radiation of the same
fre%uency and phase.
$e argued in favor of
the wave nature of light.
&iffraction and
interference
Light passing through
' narrow slits
(un
)ust as air or water carries
sound waves, a
hypothetical medium
called the luminiferous
ether was suggested as
the carrier of light waves,
The ether was
assumed to have
some very unusual
properties, e.g., being
massless but having
high elasticity.
The ether
#oherent
light source
*irror
*irror
(emi silvered
*irror
&etector
*ichelson+*orley experiment
The *ichelson+*orley
experiment compared a source
light with itself after being sent
in different directions, loo,ing
for changes in phase.
The null result, published in
1""!, was the first clear
demonstration that something
was seriously wrong with the
ether concept of that time.
t is now accepted that light is electromagnetic radiation of a
wavelength that is visible to the human eye
-adio
.aves
*icro
.aves
/isible
Light
0
-ays
nfra -ed 1ltra /iolet
2lectromagnetic
(pectrum
344 nm
!"4 nm
5amma
-ays
14
6
m metres m
+'
m
+7
m
+"
m
+14
m
+1'
N 8 1
N 8 '
N 8 6
N' to N1
The emitted radiation is
composed of discrete
pac,ets 9%uanta: of energy
called
photons
;ohr<s picture of
the hydrogen atom
2nergy
Levels
Nucleus
.hen electrons =ump from one
%uantum level to another, they
absorb and release energy in the
form of radiation.
>hoton
$ow light is
produced
Li,e all elementary particles,
photons exhibit properties of
both waves and particles.
The photon has no mass or electric charge, and does not decay
spontaneously in empty space.
n empty space, the photon moves at c 9the speed of light:
N 8 1
N6 to N'
N 8 '
N6 to N1
N 8 6
2nergy
Levels
high fre%uency
Low fre%uency
?re%uency of Light
The fre%uency of the
light is proportional to
the energy difference
between the levels.
N 8 1
N6 to N'
N 8 '
N6 to N1
N 8 6
2nergy
Levels
$igh fre%uency, $igh 2nergy
Low fre%uency, Low 2nergy
2 is the energy of the light photon,
h is >lanc,'s #onstant
f is the fre%uency of the light photon.
The energy of a light photon is@
2 8 h f
2nergy of Light
The photoelectric
effect
The energy of the electrons
depend on the fre%uency 9f:
of the light, not the intensity
-
-
-
-
- -
- -
>hotoelectric material
.hen a light source is
incident upon a metallic
surface, the surface can
emit electrons.
2 8 h f
Light exhibits properties of both waves and particles.
This property is referred to as the waveAparticle
duality.
Light is focused by a
camera lens li,e a wave.
Lens
##&
t then behaves li,e a
particle and ,noc,s
electrons off the ##&
sensor to produce a
digital image
2lectromagnetic waves
2lectric field
*agnetic field
&irection
Bn electromagnetic wave is made up of an electric field
alternating with a magnetic field at right angles to each other,
and moving in a direction perpendicular to both.
B changing electric
field can produce a
magnetic field, and
vice versa
>roperties of
2lectromagnetic waves
2lectromagnetic waves
can travel through
empty space.
The speed of light is
constant in space,
regardless of the motion
of the source or the
observer.
Bll forms of light have the same speed
of 'CC,"44 ,mDs in space
This polariEing filter
allows only vertically
polariEed light to pass
through
Light from most
sources vibrate in all
directions, and is said
to be unpolariEed.
>olariEation
1npolariEed
light
>olariEed
light
>olariEing
filter
>olaroid (unglasses
1npolariEed
light
$oriEontally
polariEed
reflection
The vertical component of light is absorbed on stri,ing a surface,
while the horiEontal component is reflected
/ertically polariEed filters
bloc, out reflected glare
water
Light intensity and
distance
The light from a point light
source spreads out uniformly
in all directions, so the
further you are the less light
reaches you.
Light ntensity
The intensity of the light is
inversely proportional to the
s%uare of the distance from the
source.
FLumenG is the unit of total light output from a light source. Typical
indoor lamps have light outputs ranging from 74 to 14,444 lumens.
F#andlepowerG is a measure of lighting
concentration in a light beam. t is used primarily
with lamps that focus, such as spotlights. The
official unit of candlepower is the Fcandela,G
FLuminance,G is expressed as candelas per s%uare meter of light emitting
surface. The luminance of a typical frosted light bulb is about 144,444
candelas per s%uare meter.
1nits of Light
-uby crystal
*irror $alf +silvered
mirror
?lash Tube
$ow LB(2-s wor,
Light Bmplification by the (timulated 2mission of -adiation
2nergy supplied by the flashtube promotes
electrons to excited energy level
2xcited electrons
2ventually, these electrons fall bac, to lower
levels, producing photons of light.
2xcited electrons
>hotons stimulate more electrons to fall,
producing a light beam of increasing intensity.
The beam is reflected by mirrors, bac, and
fourth along the length of the ruby crystal.
2ventually, it becomes so intense that it escapes
through the half+silvered mirror as a pulse of
laser light.
2xcited electrons
1. *onochromatic +
made up of only one colour
'. Non divergent A
it does not spread out
li,e a flash light
6. t is coherent +
Bll the waves are in phase, so
they don<t cancel out each other
Laser light is intense because it is @+
#arbon dioxide gas lasers can
emit hundreds of ,ilowatts of
energy and are often used in
industry for cutting and
welding.
Low power laser
diodes are used in laser
printers and #&D&/&
players.
1ses of lasers
$and held diode lasers can
be used to guide
telescopes during
Bstro#lub meetings
Transverse .aves
Bmplitude
.ave length
/elocity
?re%uency 8
/elocity
.avelength
4 C4 1"4 '!4 664
>ositive
Negative
>hase angle
#onstructive interference
.ave 1
.ave '
-esultant wave
This occurs when two waves are in phase with each other
>ea,
>ea,
&estructive interference
.ave 1
.ave '
-esultant wave
This occurs when two waves are out of phase with each other
>ea,
Trough
The waves cancel out each other
1"4
o
out of phase
-efraction
Light slows down when it enters a more
optically dense medium.
This causes the path of the light to bend.
5lass
Bngle of ncidence
Bngle of refraction
5lass
n going into a more dense
medium, light is refracted
towards the normal
Normal
v
1
v
2
Bngle of ncidence
Bngle of refraction
5lass
Normal
(nell's law states that the ratio of
the sines of the angles of
incidence and refraction is
e%uivalent to the ratio of
velocities in the two media.
v
1
v
2
(in
(in
8
v
1
v
2
(nell<s
Law
Bngle of ncidence
Bngle of refraction
5lass
Normal
v
1
v
2
-efractive
index
5lass has a refractive index close to 1.7,
which means that in glass, light travels at 1
D 1.7 8 ' D 6
the speed of light in a vacuum
(in
(in
8
v
1
v
2
8
v
1
v
2
8
5lass
n going from a more dense to a
less dense medium, light is
refracted away from the normal
Normal
?rom more dense to less dense medium
#ritical
angle
5lass
f the angle of incidence is
increased beyond a certain
critical value, total internal
reflection will ta,e place
Total
internal
reflection
c
Normal
8 C4
o
(in C4
o
(in
(in C
8 8 (in C
(in
8
#ritical
Bngle
Total
internal
reflection
&iamond
-efractive
indices
(ilicon
&iamond
Hirconium dioxide
5lass
.ater
3.41
'.31
'.17
1.3C
1.66
?ibre Iptic cable
Laser
#able made from super clear glass uses
internal reflection to transmit light over
long distances and around bends.
?ibre Iptics
1sed in diagnostic
instruments and
communications
nternal
reflections
.hite light is made up of all colours. .hen
passed through a prism it is separated into it
components.
$igh fre%uencies are refracted more than low
fre%uencies.
This accounts for the blue colour of the s,y
/isible spectrum
The visible spectrum
In passing through a glass lens, blue light is refracted more
than red light, causing rainbow coloured images.
This is ,nown as #hromatic Bberration
#hromatic
Bberration
(tar
lens
image
&ue to imperfections in the shape of the lens,
light passing through is brought to focus at
different points, causing blurred images
This is ,nown as (pherical Bberration
(pherical
Bberration
(tar
lens
image
B convex lens produces a real inverted image
of a distant ob=ect
mage
produced by
a convex
lens
Ib=ect
lens
image
n a telescope, the eyepiece produces a
magnified virtual image of the ob=ect
B Telescope
Ib=ect
lens
image
eyepiece
!44 nm
344 nm
$ydrogen emission spectra
$ Blpha line 676 nm
Transition
n 8 6 to n 8 '
#ontinuous
spectrum
2mission
spectrum
The emission lines
correspond to photons
of discrete energies that
are emitted when
excited atomic states in
the gas ma,e transitions
bac, to lower+lying
levels.
The red glow in this emission
nebula is created by cosmic
hydrogen gas recapturing
electrons ,noc,ed away by
energetic starlight.
2mission nebulae
$ydrogen absorption spectra
$ Blpha line 676 nm
!44 nm
344 nm
The spectral series are important in
astronomy for detecting the presence of
hydrogen and calculating red shifts.
Bn absorption spectrum occurs when light
passes through a cold, dilute gas and
atoms in the gas absorb at characteristic
fre%uencies.
This gives rise to dar, lines 9absence of
light: in the spectrum.
344nm 676nm !44nm
$ Blpha Line
Transitions from N6 to N'
The fre%uency of a wave may be increased or decreased depending on
the relative velocity between source and observer. (pectral lines are
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum in stars that are moving away.
-edshift
-ed
shift
Bccording to 2instein, the
fre%uency of light is reduced by
a powerful gravitational field,
such as that associated with
white dwarfs.
-ed
shift
-ed shifts may not necessarily
mean that a massive ob=ect is
moving away
Bccording to 5eneral
relativity, light follows a
distorted path in presence
of a massive body.
Bctually light
always follows a
straight path, but
it<s the space that
bends.
The bending
of light
;lac, $oles are the result
of the deformation of
spacetime caused by a
very compact mass.
f you shine a light near a
blac, hole it will also be
redshifted out of existence
;lac, $oles
Gerry Barrow