EE 445L - Fall 2011 1

EE 445L - Topics In Communication

Conclusions
EE 445L - Fall 2011 2
Digital Transmission Systems
How rapidly can information (bits) be
communicated via a particular transmission
system?
That depends upon:
the amount of energy used in transmitting each
signal
the distance between transmitter and receiver
attenuation and distortion
the amount of noise associated with the channel
the bandwidth of the channel

EE 445L - Fall 2011 3
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Bandwidth what do we mean?
the problem is: strictly band-limited signals
are not realizable, because they imply signals
with infinite duration and duration-limited
signals imply arbitrarily high frequencies
(Sklar Digital Communications)
EE 445L - Fall 2011 4
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Then bandwidth could be:
half-power bandwidth interval between frequencies at
which G
x
(f) has dropped to half power (3dB)
equivqlent rectangular bandwidth let Px be the total signal
power over all frequencies, then W
n
= P
x
/ G
x
(f
c
)
null to null bandwidth frequency interval between first two
nulls of G
x
(f)
fractional power containment bandwidth bandwidth with
0.5% of signal power above and below the band (FCC)
bounded power spectral density band defined so that
everywhere outside G
x
(f) must have fallen to a given level
absolute bandwidth the interval that contains all of the
signals frequencies (abstraction)
EE 445L - Fall 2011 5
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Assume a channel of bandwidth W (Hz) and
consider positive and negative going pulses
each carrying one bit of information, i.e., an
amplitude of A = 1 and -A = 0
Maximum pulse transmission rate (Nyquist rate) is 2W pulses/second
Channel
t
t
-A
-A
EE 445L - Fall 2011 6
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Proposed improvement:
send pulses at the Nyquist rate
vary pulse amplitude, e.g., {-A, -A/2, A/2, A
corresponding to 00, 01, 10, 11}
if M = 2
m
levels are employed, m bits are
communicated with each pulse
group of m bits is called a symbol
our apparent information rate is then:
r = 2Wm b/s
And, we can apparently select m to be as large
as wed like!

EE 445L - Fall 2011 7
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
REALITY!
we have to address the issue of noise
signal
noise
signal + noise
t
t
t
SNR =
Average Signal Power
Average Noise Power
SNR (dB) = 10 log
10
SNR
EE 445L - Fall 2011 8
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Relationship between noise and additional
additional signal levels
4 signal levels 8 signal levels
typical noise
EE 445L - Fall 2011 9
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Noise confuses the receiver:
as we increase the value of m, the number of
different amplitudes that we employ to represent
information, the spacing between the different
amplitudes (symbols) decreases
when the noise associated with the channel is
comparable with the spacing between the various
amplitudes, the receiver can not distinguish one
amplitude from another
the capacity of the channel to transmit information
is bounded by the strength of the signal in relation
to the strength of the attendant noise
EE 445L - Fall 2011 10
Digital Transmission Systems (cont.)
Shannon channel capacity:

C = W log
2
(1 + SNR) b/s

Example: Telephone channel
W = 3.4 kHz and SNR ~ 38 dB => SNR ~ 6310
C = 3.4 kHz log
2
(1 + 6310) = 3.4kHz x 12.62 b/s
= 42.9 kb/s
EE 445L - Fall 2011 11
Communication System Organization
The Open System Interconnection Model
1. Physical layer defines bits and symbols
2. Data link layer is a really busy layer:
defines units having many bits frames
error detection
resolves shared access to common medium
medium access control (MAC)
identification (addressing) of interfaces
EE 445L - Fall 2011 12
Communication System Organization
(cont.)
3. (Inter) Network layer defines packets,
identifies (more addresses) different data
link layers, resolves differences between
them and provides a means if navigating
from one to another (routing)
4. Transport layer develops segments from
packets, provides ordered, errorless, and
rate controlled flow of information
5. Session layer permits multiple information
flows to share a common communication
link, e.g., email, Web, file transfer

EE 445L - Fall 2011 13
Communication System Organization
(cont.)
6. Presentation layer handles data
conversions, e.g., floating point to ASCII
7. Application layer contains the applications
that use the communication system, e.g.,
browser, email client, etc., defines
messages
The Internet only has layers 3, 4, and 7.
( Layers 8, 9, and 10, the economic,
political, and religious layers are
essential but inaccessible to engineers.)
EE 445L - Fall 2011 14
ZigBee
Honey bees distributed across a large open
field implement a mesh network in order to
communicate information to their hive.
They do this by message relaying.
A bee distant from the hive will fly a particular
zigzag pattern that represents the information.
A second bee, nearer the hive will repeat the
pattern.
The relay continues until the information
reaches the hive

EE 445L - Fall 2011 15
ZigBee
ZigBee is a standard that defines a set of
communication protocols for low-data-rate, very
low power, short-range wireless networking.
battery powered with operational lifetimes in years
multiple types of sleep mode defined
applications in sensor networks, meter reading,
industrial automation, security systems, patient
monitoring
Extends IEEE 802.15.4b standard


EE 445L - Fall 2011 16
ZigBee (cont.)
EE 445L - Fall 2011 17
ZigBee (cont.)
EE 445L - Fall 2011 18
EE 445L - Fall 2011 19
ZigBee Networks
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ZigBee PHY Protocol Data Unit
SHR synchronization header
PHR PHY header
PSDU PHY service data unit
EE 445L - Fall 2011 21
ZigBee Frame Format
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ZigBee Media Access Control
Two options depending upon network
participation:
if not participating in a network, Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA-CA) is employed
sense channel, if busy wait a variable period
depending upon number of previous busies
detected else transmit
suffers from hidden node problem
if participating in a network, synchronize via
network coordinator
EE 445L - Fall 2011 23
XBee Module
EE 445L - Fall 2011 24
XBee Module
uProcessor
RF
Transceiver
UART
LM3S1968
XBee Module
EE 445L - Fall 2011 25
XBee Module
Command Mode
Used to configure operational parameters of the
XBee Module
Uses AT command syntax
Developed for Hayes modems immediately after the
invention of water
Long list of commands
Sequence
1. Enter command mode
2. Issue commands
3. Exit command mode
EE 445L - Fall 2011 26
XBee Module
Enter Command Mode
(set baud rate on UART to the XBee modules
default of 9600)
No Tx for at least one second
Send the sequence +++
No Tx for at least one second

EE 445L - Fall 2011 27
XBee Module

Command Format



When command is executed correctly the
response, OK, is returned
(wait after each after each command sent
before checking for completion)


EE 445L - Fall 2011 28
XBee Module
Relevant commands
AP enable application programming
interface
MY set and read 16-bit address of this RF
module
DL set lower 32 (16) bits of destination RF
module address
DH set upper 32 bits of destination RF
module address (if set to 0, 16 bit addressing)
CN exit command mode

EE 445L - Fall 2011 29
XBee Module
Application Programming Interface (API)
Data structure between Tx and Rx API
frame
Ensures error free transmission
Eliminates need for user to implement
automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
After every transmission, Tx receives
automatic acknowledgment in response
EE 445L - Fall 2011 30
XBee Module
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XBee Module
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XBee Module