FUNDAMENTALS OF

STEEL MAKING
SOME DEFINATIONS
IRON : Chemically Pure Metal
( Latin Ferrum means Iron, Symbol Fe)

CAST IRON : It is an alloy of Iron (Fe) and carbon
containing >2.0% carbon
What
is
STEEL ?
It is an alloy of Iron (Fe) and Carbon
containing < 2.0% carbon. Metallurgical it is
an interstitial solid solution of carbon (C) in
Iron (Fe) where content of solute
(i.e. C is 2.0%)
TYPES OF STEEL
1. LOW CARBON : Containing 0.30% carbon
Eg: Drawing and EDD, Furniture Steel

2. MEDIUM CARBON : Containing 0.30 0.70% carbon
(Eg : Rail Steel, Rolling Mill housing wear plates etc.)

3. High Carbon : Containing 0.70% carbon
(Eg : Spade, Axe, Chisel etc. (For ordinary temperature applications) )



Depending on the carbon content
Depending on De-oxidation

150-250 PPM OF O
2
VERY UNCLEAN
BUT HIGH QUALITY SURFACE FINISH
USED FOR MAKING WHITE GOODS BODY OF REFRIGERATOR, WASHING
MACHINE, WELDING ELECTRODES AND HIGH CONDUCTIVITY RAILS FOR METRO
RAIL.
RIMMED
GARDEN STEEL
70-80 PPM O
2
USED FOR MAKING TUBES, PIPES AND ORDINARY STRUCTURAL STEEL
SEMI-KILLED
< 10 PPM OF O
2
VERY CLEAN
KILLED
Si
Silicon Killed
Si Al
Silicon
Aluminium
Killed
Al
Aluminium
Killed
KILLED
STEEL

1. SiK Steel Used for:
o Boiler Tube
o BF Shell
o Converter Shell
o Electrical Steel for making Transformer Core

2. Si AlK Steel Used for:
o Making LPG cylinders
o Auto-Chasis
o Ship Building
o Defence float bridges
o Naval Applications

3. AlK Steel Used for:
oHigh cold forming applications such as auto body,
auto gear box, oil sump, fuel tank etc.

TYPES OF STEEL
Depending on the Alloying Element
HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEEL) / (MICRO-ALLOYED STEEL

HSLA / MA
Contains very low amount of Niobium (Nb) , Titanium
(Ti) , Vanadium (V) and imparts very high strength in
steel
Used in Line Pipe Steel, Truck Chasis etc.
LOW ALLOY STEEL
LA
Contains total alloying element upto 2.0%
Eg : SAILCOR/IRS M41
TYPES OF STEEL
Depending on the Alloying Element
MEDIUM ALLOY STEEL

MAS
Contains (2-5)% total alloying elements
HIGH ALLOYED STEEL
HAS
Contains > 5% total alloying elements
Eg : Stainless Steel (Ferritic/Austenitic/Martensitic), High
Speed Steel, Modified Manganese Steel etc.
FLOW CHART > SMS-II/CCS
BLAST FURNACE
1 2 3 4 5
MIXER
2500 T
MIXER
2500 T
CONVERTER
300 T
O2 PLANT
PURITY 99.3%
BULK MATERIAL STORES
(FLUX & ADDITIVES)
MAGNETIC YARD
(SCRAP)
LADLE
300 T
DEOXIDIZER
F/ALLOY, Al, Etc.
LIQUID STEEL TAPPING +
DEOXIDATION + ALLOYING
SRU
LF/LRS
CaSi/CaFe TREATMENT
ARCING/RINSING
SLAG DEOXIDATION
TRIMMING ADDITION
CONTINUOUS CASTING M/c

SLAB YARD
FINAL
STEEL
LADLE
REHEATING FURNACE
HOT STRIP MILL
CONTINUOUSLY CAST SLAB
BOF
HOT METAL
MIXER
HOT METAL
FROM BLAST
FURNACE
LADLE
LADLE
FURNACE
PIT SIDE
CONTINUOUS CASTING
MACHINE
PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR SMS-II CCS, BSL
BOF STEEL MAKING
BASIC OBJECTIVE
TO REMOVE IMPURITIES VIZ Silicon,
Manganese, Carbon, Phosphorus, and to a lesser
extent Sulphur from HOT METAL with the help
of O
2
(purity > 99.5%) to convert it into STEEL

16
STEEL MAKING
Steelmaking is an oxidizing process
It refines and oxidizes the impurities in HOT METAL
Fluxes are added to form basic slag to fix S & P
Hot metal supplies the necessary heat
Lining: Mag-
Carbon Brick
Total Blowing Time:
16 mins (approx.)
Tapping Temperature
(Aimed): 1680
0
C
4 ton LD slag added at SMS II
converter for early formation
of slag which helps
dephosphorisation
STEELMAKING
Carried out in LD Converter
At SMS - II, 2 nos. of 300 T
converter
IMPURITIES (%) HOT METAL REFINED BATH
C 3.5 4.5 0.03 0.04
Mn TRACES TRACES
P 0.10 0.20 0.010 0.020
S 0.030 0.070 0.020 0.040
Si 0.60 1.20 TRACES
MECHANICAL & PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
Highly Brittle Good Ductility, Maleability
UNABLE TO WORK (i.e.
Rolling, Forging etc.) Unable
to be heat treated
Can be worked into Required
Shape. Ability to be Heat
Treated
Having good vibration
damping capacity
Less Vibration Damping
Capacity
Poor Impact Resistance High Impact Resistance
RAW MATERIAL FOR STEEL MAKING
HOT
METAL
OXYGEN
SCRAP
FLUX
CONSU-
MABLES
It is the main raw
material which is
to be refined and
converted into
steel.
It is also a primary
raw material which
oxidizes the
impurities into
their respective
oxides. Purity of
oxygen required:
>99.5%
Iron Scrap
It reacts with
oxidation
products of
impurities and
convert into
fusible slag.
Steel Scrap
De-oxidizers
and Alloying
elements like
FeMn, FeSi etc.
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Sl No. Calcined Flux % CaO % MgO % SiO2 % LOI Reactivity
1. Lime > 87.0 < 2.0 < 1.5 5 - 7 300 350
2. Dolomite Lime 68 70 14 16 < 5.0 5 - 7 200 250
3. Lime 55 - 60 28 - 32 < 3.0 5 - 7 140 - 160
ANALYSIS OF CALCINED LIME
FLUX
Primary Flux
Secondary Flux
: Generally Calcined Lime and Dolomite is used
(Slag Conditioner/Slag Fluidizer) : Iron ore, Mn ore,
bauxite, Fluorspar and LD slag are used to make slag fluid.

SEQUENCE OF OXIDATION OF VARIOUS
ELEMENTS DURING BLOWS
Oxidation of Si is very fast and more or less
completed in 5-7 mins

Mn comes down concurrently with Si upto a
certain point and remains almost same for the
blow except some reversal may take place
towards the end of the blow.

Carbon & Phosphorus oxidize together after few
minutes of blowing (after Si oxidation)

OXIDATION OF ELEMENTS DURING BLOWING AT LD CONVERTER
FUNCTIONS OF BOF
Remove impurities with the help of Oxygen to
convert into Steel.

The oxidation products other than carbon lead
to ACIDIC OXIDES which dissolves the
calcined lime (Basic Oxide) added, resulting in
a basic slag having basicity (CaO/SiO2) 2.8-
3.2.
1/2{O
2
} = [O]

[Fe] + 1/2{O
2
} = (FeO)

[Si] + {O
2
} = (SiO
2
)

[Mn] + 1/2{O
2
} = (MnO)

2[P] + 5/2{O
2
} = (P
2
O
5
)

[C] + 1/2{O
2
} = {CO}

{CO} + 1/2{O
2
} = {CO
2
}
DESULPHURISATION
DEPHOSPHORISATION
HIGH TEMPERATURE
HIGHER BASICITY OF SLAG
REDUCING ATMOSPHERE NOT APPLICABLE IN LD CONVERTER
OXIDISING ATMOSPHERE
HIGHER BASICITY OF SLAG
TEMPERATURE
FLUIDITY
PHASE-I
PHASE-II
PHASE-III
BLOWING
CYCLE
BLOWING PRACTICE
Blowing Practice means the supply of oxygen at
desired flow rate and pressure through lance tip
to the molten bath during three stages of
blowing as discussed earlier. The main elements
of blowing are:
1. O2 Blowing Rate
2. Design of lance for delivering oxygen
3. Height of lance tip positioned over bath
PARAMETERS HARD BLOW SOFT BLOW
SLAG (FEO)
RESIDUAL BATH (P)
RESIDUAL BATH (Mn)
LANCE TIP LIFE
REFRACTORY EROSION
MOUTH SKULLING
None Slaggy easier to
remove
LANCE SKULLING
SLOPPING
FLAME CHARACTERISTICS OF BOF BLOWING
(in case of open mouth converter)
OBSERVED PARAMETERS FOR FLAME
CHARACTERISTICS
METALLURGICAL CHARACTERISATION
Red flame underdeveloped Primarily bath Si & Mn oxidation stage
Fully developed flame Completion of Si & Mn oxidation as well as
beginning of the decarburisation phase
Flame bouncing intermittently Undissolved fluxes crossing the jet impact
zone
Flame becoming less intense followed by a
sudden increase in itensity
Outset of concurrence of slopping
Sparking in the flame periphery Dry slag conditions
Flame becoming less intense Completion of the period of peak
decarburisation
Flame dying down Bath has attained low Carbon
Negligible flame associated with large brown
fumes
Bath Carbon 0.03%
BLOWING PROCESS
(SEQUENCE OF ERATIONS)
1. CHARGING
2. BLOWING
3. COMBINED BLOWING TECHNOLOGY
4. SAMPLING & TEMP. MEASUREMENT
5. TAPPING & DEOXIDATION PRACTICE
THERMODYNAMIC CRITERIA FOR THE REFINING CAPACITY OF
SLAGS
Activity of FeO in CaO-FeO-SiO
2
slags at 1600
0
C
Ideal Slag
Composition
CaO 45%
FeO 20%
SiO
2
16%
De-oxidation of bath is done with the help of materials
whose affinity for combining with oxygen is more than
that of FeO. Eg: Al, Si, Mn, Coke etc.
Fe-Mn, Fe-Si, SiMn, Al and coke are most techno-
commercially viable form of de-oxidizer

Classified as INCREASING de-oxidizing power:

DEOXIDATION PRACTICE
Coke Fe-Mn SiMn FeSi Al
STRONGEST
W = A*H*1000 Kg.
R*C*100

W = Wt. of Ferro-Alloy Required
A = Assimilation (Required-Residual)%
H = Heat Size (T)
R = Recovery (100 - % oxidation loss)
C = Content of element in Ferro Alloy
AMOUNT OF DE-OXIDIZER/ALLOYING ADDITION
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTION OF DE-OXIDIZER
TURN DOWN OXYGEN ppm OF LIQUID STEEL
-> 600-800 ppm DEPENDING UPON BATH CARBON
INCREASE IN OXYGEN LEVEL OF BATH WHICH
DEPENDS UPON:
REBLOW DURATION
BATH CARBON AT THE TIME OF REBLOW
TEMP. OF BATH => SOLUBILITY OF OXYGEN AT HIGHER
TEMP. WILL BE MORE
SEQUENCE OF ADDITION OF DE-OXIDIZER
TURN DOWN OXYGEN ppm OF LIQUID STEEL
-> 600-800 ppm DEPENDING UPON BATH CARBON

INCREASE IN OXYGEN LEVEL OF BATH WHICH
DEPENDS UPON:
REBLOW DURATION
BATH CARBON AT THE TIME OF REBLOW
TEMP. OF BATH => SOLUBILITY OF OXYGEN AT HIGHER
TEMP. WILL BE MORE
36
CONTINUOUS CASTING
1998 : Continuous Casting started

Present : 2 x 2 strand
2000 mm casters
= 2.16 MT Cast Steel

After Modernisation : 3.35 MT of Cast Slab

TUNDISH PRACTICE:
SHROUD
1.1 MTR
OPERATING
DEPTH
CAPACITY 45 T
SEN
Submerged Entry
Nozzle
DAM
5500 mm
PORT ANGLE 15
0
TUNDISH NOZZLE

SHELL
PERMANENT
CASTABLE
QUARTZITE SAND
MgO based Board
(85% MgO)
Argon Shrouding
3-5 lpm
Argon Shrouding
3-5 lpm
39
Normally initial phase of blowing starts at relatively higher lance
height (above bath)

Major portion of Si is oxidized to SiO2 & Mn to MnO

Fe is oxidized to FeO

In this phase Temp. of slag > Temp of bath. As blowing proceeds
temp. gradient decreases

Decarburisation rate is very slow and gradually increases as Si in
bath is completely eliminated and bath temp. increases.

Lime dissolution rate is high and slag remains in homogeneous
liquid range, because the conc. Of CaO and SiO2 does not cross the
heterogeneous di-calcium silicate region of CaO-FeO-SiO2 system.
Starts after 5-7 mins of blowing

Decarburisation of iron droplets in the emulsion begins to increase
and slag begins to form

Lance height id reduced

FeO level of slag normally decreases:
(FeO)+CO = CO2(s)+ [Fe]

Liquid slag crosses into precipitation range of dicalcium silicate

During peak decarburisation period max. slag foaming occurs with
the probability of slag flowing through mouth of converter.
Decarburisation reaches the peak and becomes primarily dependent
on O2 supply rate

Dissolution of Lime slows down and addition of slag
conditioner/fluidiser are helpful for further lime dissolution.
This phase begins after 12-14 mins of blowing

Decarburisation rate begins to slow down and foam begins to
collapse due to lower rate of carbon monoxide generation in the slag
metal emulsion

Composition of slag changes within the heterogeneous dicalcium
silicate range

The FeO level of slag begins to increase again resulting increased lime
dissolution rate.

Slag composition approaching end point which is primarily
determined by amount of lime added.

Decarburisation rate drops down and is normally dependent on the
supply of carbon to the reaction site
4-5 T CALCINED LIME + 3-4 T LD slag at the
bottom of converter

Steel Scrap -> 30-35 T depending on Si content
of Hot Metal

Hot Metal from Mixer 275-280T (For 280T
heat size)
CHARGING
BLOWING OF CONVERTER
Lance is lowered at (2.0-2.2)m above bath and oxygen is blown at a flow
rate 1000-1100 Nm
3
/min. and pressure 14-16 Kg/cm
2
70-80 % flux addition in doses within 10-12 mins of blowing.
LD slag is added in small doses throughout blowing and particularly
during dry slag period (10-12 mins of blowing)
Gradually lance height is lowered as the blowing proceeds (0.8-1.0)m
above bath
Lance height and flow rate of oxygen varied during blowing to maintain
controlled slag foaming without slopping
O2 lance tips are periodically inspected. Excessive erosion of orifice may
change blowing pattern leading to slopping
Since lance height is the most important for blowing regular attention
must be paid for lance height measurement, its calibration and
adjustment of lance height during blowing accordingly
COMBINED BLOWING TECHNOLOGY
There are 12 elements at the bottom of converter. For
quality steel making NITROGEN is blown upto 9 mins.
Then ARGON is blown till blow finish.
Benefits of CBT is to achieve less carbon level (0-.03-
0.04%) of bath without excessive oxidation of bath.
After blow finish converter is turned down towards charging side
and temp. measurement is done. Bath and slag samples are taken
and sent to laboratory for analysis.
SAMPLING & TEMP. MEASUREMENT
A. Aimed Hot Metal
Composition
C: 4 to 4.5 %
S: 0.050 % max.
P: 0.15 % max.
B. Required
Lime Quality Dolo
Quality
CaO : 85 % min. 50 60 %
MgO : 3 % max. 25 30 %
SiO
2
: 4 % max. 6 % max.
LOI : 7 % max. 7 % max.
Reactivity : 350 min. 150 min.
-10 mm : 30 % max. 30 % max.
D. Aimed Bath Analysis
C: 0.03-0.04 %
S: 0.020-0.030 %
P: 0.015 % max.
BATH O2 ppm: 600-800;
C. Aimed Slag Composition
FeO: 20-22 % ; CaO: 42-46%
MgO: 10.0 to 12.0 % ; SiO2: 14-16%
Basicity: 2.5 (in Combined Blowing)
: 2.8 (in Non Combined Blowing)
Desired/Aimed Turn Down Temp.
1680 C